T2: The Quest for Civil Rights, 1917-80 Flashcards
(32 cards)
What was life in the South, 1917-32, like for BA?
- 90% lived in the South; over half were impoverished sharecroppers working on white-owned land. Shows economic dependency and limited political freedom
- Jim Crow Laws: state and local laws enforcing racial segregation and Black inferiority; lasted from post-Reconstruction period in the 1870s until being fully abolished in 1965. This included segregation in diners, schools, public transport, healthcare.
- Racial stereotypes through minstrel shows, “Sambo” cartoons, and “coon” caricatures portrayed Black people as idle, subservient, or foolish, justifying segregation.
- The KKK used violence and intimidation (e.g. lynching, cross burning) to suppress Black voting and to assert white superiority. Deemed unconstitutional in 1882, but the “Birth of a Nation” film prompted their resurgence.
What were the key legislation regarding BA civil rights, 1917-32?
13th Amendment (1865): Abolished slavery
14th Amendment (1868): Granted citizenship and rights to all races
15th Amendment (1870): Gave voting rights regardless of race
Plessy v. Ferguson (1896): legitimised and legalised segregation under “separate but equal,” although facilities were not at all equal.
Wilson facilitated segregation by allowing his Cabinet to control their own department procedures ; Harding spoke against lynching but took no action; limited federal enforcement of civil rights due to laissez-fair attitudes.
What was the impact of the Great Migration, 1917-32?
Economic Impact
The Great Migration saw Black Americans leave the rural South due to crop failures, poverty, and limited economic opportunities tied to sharecropping. The industrial North promised jobs in steel mills, railroads, and automobile factories, offering the prospect of social mobility. While migration did provide greater economic independence—freeing many from economic dependency on white landowners—Black workers were still confined to low-paying, physically demanding, and often dangerous jobs. Economic inequality persisted: Black Americans remained five times more likely to live in poverty than white Americans, faced job discrimination, and were typically “last hired, first fired,” particularly during the Great Depression. Nevertheless, there was a rise in Black entrepreneurship, notably the success of publications like The Chicago Defender, and growth in Black-owned businesses.
Social Impact
The migration allowed many Black Americans to flee racial terror in the South—such as KKK violence and lynchings—in search of safety and dignity in the North. This movement catalysed the Harlem Renaissance, a cultural explosion that celebrated Black identity through music (e.g., Louis Armstrong, Bessie Smith), literature, and art. However, increased Black presence in Northern cities also led to white backlash, seen in events like the Chicago Race Riot of 1919, redlining, and the development of racially segregated ghettos. Paradoxes emerged: for instance, venues like the Cotton Club showcased Black music while barring Black patrons. Black churches emerged as vital community centres and political hubs, laying early foundations for the Civil Rights Movement.
Political Impact
In contrast to the disenfranchisement of the Jim Crow South, the North offered Black Americans increased political participation, including the right to vote and the opportunity to influence elections. This growing electoral influence was crucial to the success of politicians like FDR, whose New Deal policies—though not explicitly race-conscious—were shaped in part by the Black vote. Black Americans also began winning local office; Oscar De Priest became the first Black congressman of the 20th century in 1928, representing a Northern district. The NAACP also gained momentum during this period, securing legal victories such as the Ossian Sweet case, which helped set precedents against racially motivated prosecutions and housing discrimination.
What was the impact of the early civil rights movement (1917-45)
Marcus Garvey and the UNIA (Universal Negro Improvement Association):
Garvey’s UNIA promoted Black pride, self-reliance, and separatism, advocating for the establishment of a separate Black nation. His “Back to Africa” movement and calls for economic independence resonated widely, particularly among working-class Black Americans. Although Garvey’s emphasis on separatism was controversial, it fostered a sense of unity and pride that was important in shaping later Black nationalist movements.
Ida B. Wells:
Wells was a pioneering anti-lynching activist who used her journalism to expose the brutal practice of lynching in the South. Her work, especially her pamphlets and speeches, raised national awareness about racial violence, leading to increased support for federal anti-lynching laws. Wells’ activism helped spark a broader social movement against racial violence, laying the foundation for later civil rights efforts.
A. Philip Randolph:
Randolph was a key labour leader and civil rights activist who founded the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, the first African American labour union. He fought for the rights of Black workers, emphasizing the need for both racial and economic equality. Randolph’s push for a march on Washington in 1941 pressured President Roosevelt to issue Executive Order 8802, which banned discrimination in defense industries and promoted fair employment practices.
NAACP and Legal Challenges:
The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) continued its work from the early 20th century, focusing on legal challenges to segregation and discrimination. Under leaders like W.E.B. Du Bois, the NAACP made important legal strides, including fighting for the rights of Black Americans in court. Their efforts in challenging discriminatory laws and practices in areas like education, voting rights, and public facilities began to build the case for later landmark victories, such as Brown v. Board of Education.
Black Nationalism vs. Integration:
During this period, there was significant debate within the Black community regarding the best approach to achieving racial equality. While figures like Garvey promoted Black nationalism and separatism, others like Du Bois and the NAACP pushed for integration and legal challenges to discriminatory laws. This tension highlighted the diversity of thought within the movement and foreshadowed the different strategies that would emerge in the post-World War II civil rights era.
What was the impact of the FDR presidency and the New Deal for BA, 1933-45?
Under Franklin D. Roosevelt, the number of Black Americans working in the federal bureaucracy tripled to 150,000 by 1941, signalling a shift in Black political engagement and access to government jobs. FDR’s New Deal programs were often designed to be race-blind to appeal to Black voters, especially in Northern cities, which marked a notable change in political engagement for Black Americans. However, while the New Deal provided some jobs and social support, the impact was mixed, and Black Americans continued to face significant racial discrimination and exclusion.
The Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA):
The AAA led to the removal of land from production to increase agricultural prices, but it disproportionately affected Black sharecroppers in the South. Approximately 200,000 Black workers were displaced between 1933 and 1940, as Southern white landowners received subsidies, but Black farmworkers lost their livelihoods.
The National Recovery Administration (NRA):
The NRA often categorised jobs held by Black Americans in ways that allowed employers to avoid paying them equal wages to their white counterparts. The lack of legal enforcement meant that federal agencies’ initiatives were poorly implemented on the local level, leading to the exploitation and undercompensation of Black workers in many sectors.
Social Security Act (SSA):
Many Black Americans were excluded from the benefits of the Social Security Act because a high proportion of Black workers were employed in seasonal or temporary jobs, such as farming or domestic work, which were not covered under the SSA. This limited their access to economic security and benefits, further deepening economic inequality.
Works Progress Administration (WPA):
Despite the exclusions in other areas, the WPA employed around 350,000 Black Americans each year, providing them with some economic relief. This employment, though helpful, still reflected the broader racial inequalities in the New Deal’s programs. However, 76% of Black Americans supported FDR, recognising the limited but tangible benefits his administration provided.
Impact of the Second World War (SWW)
Increased Employment in Industry:
The demand for wartime labour led to an increase in Black employment, especially in urban industrial centres. Black Americans migrated in large numbers to cities for jobs in the defence industries, leaving rural areas and the South in search of better opportunities. This migration to the North and West marked a shift in the demographic landscape, contributing to the growth of Black communities in urban areas.
The Double V Campaign:
The Double V campaign symbolised Black Americans’ desire for victory both abroad, against fascism and the Axis powers, and at home, against racism and segregation. This campaign highlighted the contradiction of Black Americans fighting for democracy overseas while being denied basic civil rights at home. It became a rallying point for activism, amplifying the call for civil rights reforms.
A. Philip Randolph’s Leadership:
A. Philip Randolph, a prominent labour leader, played a key role in advocating for equality in wartime employment. He pushed for the establishment of Executive Order 8802, which mandated non-discrimination in defence industry jobs. This led to increased Black employment in wartime manufacturing and a recognition of Black Americans’ contributions to the war effort.
Growth of Civil Rights Activism:
During the war, civil rights activism gained momentum. Organisations like the NAACP saw their membership soar to 450,000, as more Black Americans became involved in demanding equal rights. Activists pushed for changes in policy, including fair employment practices and the desegregation of the armed forces. The war’s fight for democracy abroad highlighted the hypocrisy of segregation at home, further fuelling civil rights demands.
FDR’s Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEPC):
FDR’s establishment of the FEPC in 1941 aimed to ensure non-discrimination in defence industry jobs. This initiative led to an increase in the number of Black workers in the defence sector, from 3% to 8%. While not a complete solution to racial inequality in employment, it represented a significant step forward in increasing access to jobs for Black Americans.
The GI Bill and Black Veterans:
The GI Bill of Rights (1944) provided Black veterans with opportunities for education, housing, and business loans. Though Black veterans often faced discrimination in accessing these benefits, the GI Bill did contribute to the economic mobility of some Black Americans. Many were able to attend college or start businesses, laying the foundation for the post-war Black middle class.
What was the impact of the Truman presidency on Civil Rights, 1945-53?
Truman’s Personal Transformation and the Influence of WWII:
Although Truman had been a member of the Ku Klux Klan in his early life, his views evolved dramatically over time. A pivotal moment in this transformation occurred after learning about the brutal treatment of a Black soldier returning from WWII who had been beaten by white civilians. This event had a profound effect on Truman, and he became increasingly sympathetic toward the plight of Black Americans. He recognised the need for change, understanding that something was seriously wrong with the system of racial segregation and discrimination.
President’s Committee on Civil Rights (1946):
In 1946, Truman established the President’s Committee on Civil Rights, which was tasked with examining racial inequality in the United States and recommending legislative solutions. The committee’s report, To Secure These Rights, called for sweeping changes, including the abolition of the poll tax (which was used to disenfranchise Black voters), anti-lynching laws, and desegregation of public facilities. The report marked a bold step towards acknowledging and addressing systemic racism, although many of its recommendations would be blocked or watered down by a Congress resistant to racial equality.
Executive Order 9981 – Desegregation of the Military:
One of Truman’s most significant actions in the realm of civil rights was the signing of Executive Order 9981 in 1948, which mandated the desegregation of the armed forces. This was a critical moment for Black Americans, as it marked the first federal action toward racial desegregation in the military. Although implementation was slow, the order laid the groundwork for more widespread desegregation in other federal institutions and was a key milestone in the broader struggle for civil rights.
Acknowledging the NAACP:
Truman was the first sitting president to publicly acknowledge the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) and its role in advocating for Black rights. While this was a significant symbolic gesture, it also demonstrated a growing political alignment between the civil rights movement and the Democratic Party.
Challenges and Congressional Resistance:
Despite his personal commitment to civil rights, Truman’s achievements were constrained by a divided Congress. Southern Democrats, in particular, fiercely opposed civil rights legislation, using their power in Congress to block many of Truman’s proposals. The deep-seated racism in the South and the political strength of segregationists meant that Truman’s bold calls for civil rights reform often stalled or were undermined.
Overall Impact on Black Americans:
Truman’s presidency was a mixed bag for Black Americans. On the one hand, he took meaningful steps towards racial equality, including his advocacy for civil rights legislation, the creation of the President’s Committee on Civil Rights, and the desegregation of the military. These actions demonstrated a significant shift in presidential support for Black Americans and laid the foundation for future civil rights advancements.
The NAACP (1917-45)
- Founded in 1909 by a group of Black and white activists including W.E.B. Du Bois, Ida B. Wells, and white liberals like Mary White Ovington. Its primary aim was to fight racial discrimination and injustice through legal, educational, and lobbying efforts.
- One of the NAACP’s earliest and most urgent priorities was combating lynching, segregation and voting rights in the courtd. Under the leadership of journalist and activist Ida B. Wells and others, the NAACP publicised lynchings and pressured Congress to pass federal anti-lynching legislation.
- One of the NAACP’s most significant early victories came in the case of Dr. Ossian Sweet, a Black physician who bought a house in a white neighbourhood in Detroit. In 1925, a white mob gathered outside Sweet’s home, and in the ensuing violence, a white man was killed. Sweet and his family were arrested and charged with murder. The NAACP provided legal support and won the case for SQweet.
- Thurgood Marshall took over as head of the NAACP Legal Defence Fund. Marshall was dynamic and relentless in his pursuit of justice and would eventually go on to become the first Black U.S. Supreme Court Justice. Under his leadership, the NAACP continued its strategic assault on segregation in education and public life, laying the groundwork for Brown v. Board of Education (1954).
- By the end of World War II, the NAACP had grown in both size and influence. Membership surged during the war years, from around 50,000 in 1940 to over 400,000 by 1946. The war itself, along with campaigns like the Double V movement, heightened awareness of racial injustice and gave further urgency to civil rights activism.
CORE
CORE: Established in 1942 in Chicago by a group of both Black and white activists, including James Farmer, and was inspired by the principles of nonviolent civil disobedience advocated by Mahatma Gandhi. Initially a small, interracial organisation, CORE sought to challenge segregation in the North and South through direct action. In its early years, CORE focused on desegregating public spaces, particularly in the North, and organised sit-ins, such as the successful 1947 Journey of Reconciliation — a precursor to the Freedom Rides — which tested Supreme Court rulings against segregation in interstate travel. CORE operated with limited national influence in the 1940s but was significant for introducing and refining nonviolent protest tactics that would become central to the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s. Its emphasis on interracial cooperation and grassroots activism marked it as a key early player in the broader struggle for Black civil rights.
What was the Montogomery Bus Boycott 1955?
The Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955–56) was a pivotal moment in the American civil rights movement, sparked by Rosa Parks’ arrest on 1 December 1955 for refusing to give up her seat to a white passenger on a segregated bus in Montgomery, Alabama. In response, the Black community, under the coordination of the newly formed Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) led by a young pastor, Dr Martin Luther King Jr, launched a city-wide boycott of the bus system. The boycott lasted over a year, with Black residents — who made up the majority of bus passengers — organising carpools, walking long distances, and refusing to use public transport to protest segregation. Despite intimidation, arrests, and economic retaliation, the boycott held firm.
It ended successfully on 20 December 1956 after the Supreme Court ruled in Browder v. Gayle that segregation on public buses was unconstitutional. The boycott marked the rise of King as a national civil rights leader and demonstrated the power of nonviolent mass protest and collective action, setting the tone for future civil rights campaigns across the South. Hiowever, black people werwe still subject to racist attacks on buses, for example they wouyld shoot snipers at the buses and at people.
Over 75% bus users were BA and 90% of them boycotted the buses.
Claudette Colvin had refused to give up her seat a week earlier, but had been refused to the the figurehead of the movement, on the basis of her teen preganancy. The CRM were keen to only promoted “respectable” figures.
MLK became the figurehead of the movement, and utilised his pastor background to preach about equality.
King was elected president of the Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA), the organization that spearheaded the boycott. He led the MIA in organizing the boycott, which lasted for 381 days and ultimately led to the desegregation of Montgomery’s bus system.
What was the Little Rock 9 event, 1957?
The case of the Little Rock Nine in 1957 was a landmark moment in the struggle to enforce school desegregation following the Supreme Court’s Brown v. Board of Education (1954) decision. In Little Rock, Arkansas, nine academically strong Black students were selected to integrate the all-white Central High School. Their attempt to attend the school was met with fierce resistance from white mobs (Go back to the jungle) and defiance from Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus, who deployed the National Guard to block their entry, claiming it was to maintain public order. In response, President Dwight D. Eisenhower intervened directly, sending federal troops to escort and protect the students. The Little Rock Nine endured a year of harassment, violence, and intimidation but ultimately succeeded in attending the school under military protection. The event became a powerful symbol of federal authority overriding state resistance and highlighted both the deep hostility to desegregation in the South and the federal government’s willingness — though reluctant — to enforce civil rights law when directly challenged. Esiehower still sypathetic to white sourtherners.
The Greensboro Sit-ins, 1960
The Greensboro sit-ins began on 1 February 1960, when four Black college students sat at a “whites-only” lunch counter at a Woolworth’s store in Greensboro, North Carolina, and politely asked to be served. When they were refused service, they remained seated in peaceful protest. This act of nonviolent civil disobedience quickly gained momentum, as hundreds of students joined the movement across the South in similar sit-ins, challenging segregation in public spaces. The protestors endured verbal abuse, physical assaults, and arrests, yet remained nonviolent. Within months, the sit-ins had spread to over 50 cities and helped prompt the desegregation of many lunch counters. The movement also inspired the creation of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) 1960, a key organisation in the civil rights struggle. The Greensboro sit-ins demonstrated the power of youth-led, grassroots activism and nonviolent resistance, revitalising the civil rights movement and applying economic pressure to dismantle segregation in public accommodations.
Sit ins took place in acorss 30 other cities, 70k emulated them in the Souyh. It led to 150 cities introducing some form of desegration in order to prevent further loss to business (Woolworth’s was a chain store)
What was SNCC?
The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), founded in 1960 with the help of Ella Baker, was a key grassroots civil rights organisation that differed from older groups like the SCLC (Southern Christian Leadership Conference) led by Martin Luther King Jr. While both groups initially embraced nonviolence, SNCC’s approach was more radical, confrontational, and youth-led, prioritising direct action and community organising over negotiation with white leaders.
Tactical Differences from SCLC:
SNCC members were often more willing to provoke confrontation with segregationists and law enforcement, seeing violent backlash as a way to expose injustice and generate national media attention. Unlike the SCLC, which worked through church leaders and favoured more structured, top-down leadership, SNCC valued decentralised, grassroots leadership.
Freedom Schools and Education:
SNCC established Freedom Schools in the South, especially during the 1964 Freedom Summer, to educate Black children and adults about civil rights, Black history, and civic responsibilities, empowering them to challenge systemic racism.
Voter Registration and Field Secretaries:
SNCC was heavily involved in voter registration drives, particularly in hostile Southern states like Mississippi and Alabama. They sent field secretaries—young organisers who lived and worked in rural Black communities—to encourage voter registration. These efforts often faced violent resistance, police brutality, and economic reprisals from white supremacists and local authorities.
Confronting Violence:
While SNCC was founded on nonviolent principles, the brutal violence faced by its members led some within the organisation, particularly under leaders like Stokely Carmichael, to eventually embrace more militant positions and promote Black Power in the mid- to late 1960s.
Freedom Rides 1961?
The Freedom Rides of 1961 were a bold campaign organised by the CORE and joined by SNCC, l to test the SC rulings which declared segregation in interstate bus travel unconstitutional. Integrated groups of Black and white activists boarded buses in Washington, D.C., intending to travel through the Deep South, using “whites-only” and “coloured-only” facilities to challenge the lack of enforcement of these rulings. The Freedom Riders were met with escalating violence — buses were firebombed, and riders were beaten by white mobs, often with the complicity or outright cooperation of local authorities. In Birmingham and Montgomery, Alabama, the violence reached national headlines, prompting federal intervention. Eventually, under pressure, the Interstate Commerce Commission, with backing from the Kennedy administration, issued regulations in late 1961 to enforce desegregation in interstate travel facilities. The Freedom Rides exposed the federal government’s reluctance to confront Southern resistance but ultimately forced it to act. Wa s apowerful display of CR activism,.
What was the Birmingham Campaign, 1963?
The Birmingham Campaign of 1963 was a strategic movement led by MLK and SCLC and local activists aimed at challenging the entrenched system of segregation in Birmingham, Alabama — one of the most racially divided and violently resistant cities in the South (Bombinghmae, for the frwuenrcy in which balck hoems were firebombed) The campaign focused on nonviolent direct action, including boycotts, marches, and sit-ins, targeting segregated public facilities and discriminatory employment practices.
A turning point came with the decision to involve children in what became known as the “Children’s Crusade” in May 1963. Hundreds of school students marched peacefully but were met with brutal police tactics under the command of Public Safety Commissioner “Bull” Connor. The use of police dogs and high-pressure fire hoses on young demonstrators was broadcast across the nation, shocking the public and garnering widespread sympathy for the civil rights cause.
The media coverage and growing national outrage pressured JFK to publicly support civil rights legislation. The campaign ultimately led to a negotiated agreement to desegregate Birmingham’s public facilities and improve employment opportunities for Black citizens. It was a key victory for the movement, demonstrating the effectiveness of coordinated, nonviolent protest and marking a pivotal moment in the push for the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
MLK was jailed, but used this publcitiy to write “A letter on birmingham jail” on the themes of eaulity, justice and legitimacy of the law.
March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, 1963
The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom took place on August 1963 and was one of the largest and most significant civil rights demonstrations in American history. Organised by a coalition of civil rights, labour, and religious organisations — including the NAACP, SCLC, CORE, and SNCC — it drew over 250,k people to the Lincoln memorial at DC. The march aimed to pressure the federal government to pass meaningful civil rights legislation, particularly in the wake of the Birmingham Campaign’s violence and to demand an end to racial segregation, economic injustice, and discrimination in employment.
It was here that MLK delivered his iconic “I Have a Dream” speech, calling for racial harmony, equal opportunity, and justice. The peaceful nature and sheer scale of the march demonstrated to the nation — and the world — the strength, unity, and resolve of the civil rights movement. The march played a crucial role in building momentum for the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
Freedom Summer, 1964
Freedom Summer was a major civil rights campaign launched in Mississippi in 1964, aimed at increasing Black voter registration in one of the most violently segregated and politically repressive states in the U.S. Organised by civil rights groups including SNCC, CORE, and the NAACP, the campaign brought together thousands of Black Mississippians and over 1,000 mostly white college student volunteers from the North. These activists worked to register Black voters, run Freedom Schools, and establish the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP) to challenge the all-white Mississippi delegation at the Democratic National Convention.
The campaign faced extreme resistance. Volunteers were met with threats, beatings, arrests, arson, and even murder. Six activists were killed during the campaign, including three whose deaths—at the hands of the Ku Klux Klan with the complicity of local law enforcement—drew national attention to the brutal suppression of civil rights in the South. There were 35 recorded shooting incidents.
While the campaign saw 17,000 Black Americans attempt to register to vote, only 1,600 were successful, due to the racist obstruction of all-white registrars at polling stations. This exposed the ongoing structural barriers to Black enfranchisement, even in the face of federal civil rights legislation.
Despite limited practical success in voter registration, Freedom Summer was a turning point. It dramatically exposed the extent of racial injustice in the Deep South to the rest of the nation and helped build momentum for the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
Key civil rights legislation passed under LBJ
Civil Rights Act (1964)
The Civil Rights Act was a landmark piece of legislation that outlawed segregation and discrimination based on race, colour, religion, sex, or national origin. It banned segregation in public places such as schools, restaurants, and theatres, and prohibited employment discrimination through Title VII, which also established the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC). The Act also empowered the federal government to enforce desegregation, especially in Southern states, and marked the most significant federal civil rights intervention since Reconstruction. Its passage was heavily influenced by the Birmingham Campaign and the March on Washington, and it demonstrated Johnson’s political skill in overcoming fierce Southern opposition in Congress.
Voting Rights Act (1965)
This Act was passed in direct response to the Selma marches and the violent suppression of Black voting rights in the South. It banned the use of literacy tests and other discriminatory practices that had been used to disenfranchise Black voters. It also authorised federal oversight and monitoring of elections in states with a history of voting discrimination, it replaced souther state resgistrars, whowere often racist whites, to federally approved government ones. The Act led to a dramatic increase in Black voter registration and participation, especially in the Deep South, and was a major step toward political equality.
Fair Housing Act (1968)
Passed shortly after the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr., the Fair Housing Act aimed to end discrimination in the sale, rental, and financing of housing. It banned practices like redlining, blockbusting, and racially restrictive covenants that had maintained residential segregation. The Act was the final major civil rights law of the 1960s and helped address the structural inequalities that kept Black Americans in poor housing and underfunded neighbourhoods. While enforcement was initially weak, it was a crucial symbolic and legislative step in the broader civil rights movement.
The Selma March 1965?
The Selma to Montgomery marches were a series of civil rights protests in Alabama focused on voting rights. Organised by the SCLC and SNCC, the marches aimed to highlight the persistent barriers Black citizens faced in registering to vote, despite their legal rights under the 15th Amendment. The first march on 7 March 1965, known as “Bloody Sunday,” saw over 600 peaceful demonstrators attacked by state troopers with clubs and tear gas on the Edmund Pettus Bridge in Selma. The images of brutality shocked the nation and led to widespread outrage.
Following a court injunction, a second march took place, but it was halted. A third and final march, led by Martin Luther King Jr. and protected by federal troops, successfully reached Montgomery on 25 March. The Selma campaign was instrumental in building public and political pressure for voting reform and directly led to the passing of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which outlawed discriminatory practices like literacy tests and enabled greater federal oversight of voter registration in the South.
MLK’s Northern Crusade, 1965-68
The Northern Crusade, also known as the Chicago Campaign, was launched in 1966 by Dr Martin Luther King Jr. and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) to address de facto segregation and systemic racism in northern cities—issues that persisted despite earlier victories against de jure segregation in the South.
Focusing on Chicago, a city deeply affected by racial injustice following the Great Migration, the campaign sought to challenge entrenched problems like overcrowding, ghettoisation, poor housing, underfunded schools, and limited economic opportunity. These issues stemmed from practices such as redlining, blockbusting, and restrictive covenants, which confined Black residents to segregated and impoverished neighbourhoods.
The SCLC partnered with local organisations like the Coordinating Council of Community Organizations (CCCO) and led marches into all-white neighbourhoods to demand open housing. However, unlike in the South, where segregation was often enforced by state authorities, northern racism was enforced at the community level. Protesters were met with intense hostility, including being pelted with bottles, bricks, and verbal abuse.
The campaign eventually led to an agreement with city officials to improve housing access, but the promises lacked enforcement power and resulted in few tangible changes. The media, once a powerful ally, became less sympathetic—shifting its attention to militant Black Power groups and urban unrest rather than peaceful protest. The North’s economic inequality proved resistant to the protest model; systemic poverty, poor education, and lack of investment could not be solved by marches or legislation alone.
By this time, federal funds were already stretched thin by the Vietnam War and Great Society programmes, making systemic reform difficult. The Northern Crusade showed that racism was not a regional issue, but a national one, and underscored the limits of non-violent protest in addressing economic injustice.
King’s assassination in Memphis in 1968, where he was supporting striking Black sanitation workers, marked a turning point. It effectively ended the era of non-violent mass civil rights protest and led to a shift in focus and tone within the movement.
Malcolm X, NOI and the rise of the Black Power movement
Malcolm X was a powerful and controversial African American civil rights leader, known for his uncompromising advocacy for Black empowerment, self-determination, and resistance to white supremacy. His background with his father murded by the KK, mother with poor mental health and hus involvement in crime. He rose to prominence in the 1950s and early 1960s as a spokesperson for the Nation of Islam (NOI), a religious and political movement that promoted Black separatism, self-reliance, and a rejection of integration with white society.
Malcolm X offered a stark contrast to the nonviolent, integrationist approach of Martin Luther King Jr. While King preached love, nonviolence, and peaceful protest, Malcolm X famously advocated for “any means necessary” to achieve justice and self-defence in the face of white violence and oppression. He criticised the civil rights movement for being too passive and for relying on white allies or government intervention.
However, his philosophy evolved significantly after he left the Nation of Islam in 1964, disillusioned with its leadership. He founded the Organization of Afro-American Unity (OAAU) and began promoting a more inclusive form of Pan-Africanism and human rights activism. After a pilgrimage to Mecca, he adopted more global, anti-imperialist views and began to see the civil rights struggle as part of a broader fight against injustice worldwide. He also began to soften his stance on integration and interracial solidarity. However, he was assassinated by NOI memebers.
His emphasis on Black pride, cultural identity, and economic independence, which laid the groundwork for the Black Power movement. His influence on younger activists who became disillusioned with gradual change and looked for more radical solutions.
Stokely Carmichael and the Black Power movement
Stokely Carmichael was a prominent and transformative figure in the American civil rights movement, particularly known for his leadership in SNCC during the mid-1960s. He quickly rose through the ranks due to his charisma, intellect, and organising skills.
Initially committed to nonviolent direct action, Carmichael played a leading role in Freedom Rides and voter registration drives in the Deep South. He faced repeated arrests and violence but remained committed to grassroots organising. However, by the mid-1960s, he grew frustrated with the slow pace of change, continued white violence, and what he saw as the limitations of nonviolence and interracial cooperation.
In 1966, Carmichael became chairman of SNCC and fundamentally reshaped its direction. He popularised the slogan “Black Power”, calling for Black autonomy, self-determination, pride, and control over their own political and economic institutions. This marked a sharp break from the integrationist, nonviolent approach of leaders like Martin Luther King Jr. and signalled a broader shift in the civil rights movement toward a more radical and assertive phase. He shifted black pwoer in the new direction of the movement after MLKs death, raidcalising SNCC to becomea more miltiant organisation tht eventually rejected white membership, aligning more with revolutionary ideas and Pan-Africanism.
Laying the groundwork for Black Power and Black Panther movements: His ideas strongly influenced groups like the Black Panther Party, which embraced armed self-defence, community control, and socialist principles.
Significance of Black Power and the Black Panther Party
The Black Power Movement emerged in the mid-1960s as a radical response to blsck inequslity. Focus toward self-determination, racial pride, and militant self-defense. Influenced by leaders such as Malcolm X, Stokely Carmichael (who popularized the term “Black Power”), and organizations like the Black Panther Party, the movement sought to redefine Black identity outside of white-dominated structures.
Cultural nationalism: encouraging African Americans to embrace their African heritage through art, fashion, music, and education. The slogan “Black is Beautiful” became a rallying cry.
The Black Panther Party for Self-Defense (BPP), founded in 1966 by Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale in Oakland, California, became one of the most iconic and controversial organizations of the Black Power era. Unlike mainstream groups, the Panthers adopted a Marxist-Leninist ideology, advocating for armed self-defense against police brutality while also implementing community-based social programs. The Panthers’ Ten-Point Program outlined their demands, including an end to police violence, full employment, decent housing, and education reform. They famously practiced open-carry patrols to monitor police activity, which brought them into direct conflict with law enforcement. However, their most enduring contributions were their survival programs, such as the Free Breakfast for Children Program, which fed thousands of impoverished Black youth, and free health clinics, offering medical care to underserved communities. These initiatives demonstrated the Panthers’ commitment to revolutionary socialism and grassroots activism.
Despite their positive community impact, the Panthers were vilified by the media and targeted by the government. The FBI, under J. Edgar Hoover, labeled them a “black nationalist hate group” and used COINTELPRO to sabotage the party, leading to arrests, assassinations (such as Fred Hampton’s murder in 1969), and internal divisions. By the mid-1970s, the Panthers had largely dissolved, but their influence persisted in later movements for prison abolition, food justice, and anti-police brutality activism.
Motives behind the Native American Civil Rights campaign
Problems:
* Long-standing struggle for sovereignty and self-determination; living in resrvations but under BIA control, and theiur civil liberites were hampered
* cultural preservation: policy of termination they saw as cultural geenocirde, a forced erasoure of their traditional identity to assmiilaite into the hegemonc amercian ideology.
* Justice against centuries of colonization, forced assimilation, and systemic oppression: deeply tied to treaty rights, land reclamation, and federal recognition of tribal autonomy. issue of tribal homelands being taken away. High rates iof suicied and alcoholism than nay other social group,
* US violations of treaties and governance: Forced removals (e.g., the Trail of Tears, 1830s) Massacres and military campaigns (e.g., Wounded Knee, 1890) Assimilation policies (e.g., boarding schools that banned Native languages and traditions) Termination Era (1950s-60s), where the U.S. dissolved tribal recognition to seize land
