Social🗣 Flashcards
Define social psychology
Scientific investigation of how thoughts, feelings and behaviours are influenced by actual, imagined or implied presence of others
Aims of social psychology
Measure thoughts/feelings scientifically
Effects of social and cognitive processes influencing actions
Explain behaviour to solve real world issues, interventions to promote desired feelings and behaviours
Scientific method
Observation, theory, hypothesis, research
Published in peer reviewed journals and replicated by other researchers
Experimental methods
Manipulate IV and observe DV
Lab, field, RCT
Less external validity, demand characteristics, difficult to assess long term
Establish cause and effect, manipulate variables, control experiment and extraneous variables, objectively assess
Non experimental methods
Correlation between variables (no manipulation)
Surveys, archival, qualitative
Explicit and implicit measurements
Explicit- within conscious control (self report, lab)
Implicit- unconsciously controlled, automotive (uses schemas)
Schemas
Mental representations about something, guides through social environment
If accessible, more likely to influence cognitive processes, behaviour
Implicit tasks assess reaction times
3 implicit measures
IAT, Priming, lexical decision task
Implicit association task- categorise stimuli to positive or negative
Congruent (quick response, associated together)
Priming- unconsciously present stimuli to increase accessibility of related cognitions (schemas) faster to link if primed
Lexical decision task- assess accessibility of cognitions. Judge whether letters form word. Target words reflect cognitions, reaction times
3 types of reviews (synthesis methods and findings)
NARRATIVE- current knowledge on general topic. Intro and themed subheadings, inclusions judged by researcher. No new analysis
SYSTEMATIC - well defined and precise research question. Intro, methods, results and discussion. Strict inclusion and exclusion criteria, could be reproduced. No new analysis
META-same as systematic but quantifies overall effect, magnitude. New analysis, strongest and reliable
Strengths and limitations of social psychology
+ real world interventions, rigorous methods
Random assignment to intervention and control, follow up. Report to CONSORT recommendations, still needs replication
- samples not representative of all cultures (WEIRD) should not generalise
Components of attitudes (single and tri)
Single component- unidimensional and focused on affect, general and enduring
Tricomponent- affective, behavioural and cognitive
Measuring attitudes (3 ways)
Self report measures (explicit) - interviews, focus groups, Likert scale, semantic differentials Covert measures (implicit)- behavioural measures, affective measures Psychological measures (implicit)-pupillary response, facial EMG
Relationship between implicit and explicit attitudes
Low correlation between implicit and explicit measures
Measure different memory constructs, if reflect same constructs ‘method variance’ is blamed e.g. extraneous variables
BEHAVIOURAL attitude formation
4 ways
MERE EXPOSURE EFFECT- more positive feelings to the more familiar. Rated students more in lectures as attractive
EVALUATIVE CONDITIONING- positive attitude from pairing neutral stimulus with something positive. Fictional drug ‘safer’ when paired with good images
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING-repeated association causes neutral stimulus to be positive/negative, over time
INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING-operant, positive consequence reinforced
COGNITIVE attitude formation
SELF PERCEPTION- form attitudes by observing our behaviour in context it occurs in, make inferences
Participants thought cartoons funnier when held pen in teeth (facial feedback hypothesis)and had less IAT implicit bias
Katz’s key functions of attributions
4
Formation as the needs attitudes serve, different motivations underlie them. Unlikely to be a single cause
Utilitarian/instrumental
Ego defence function
Value-expressive function
Knowledge/cognitive economy function
Katz’s key functions of attributions- utilitarian
Attitudes motivate to obtain rewards and avoid punishment e.g. positive attitude towards own football team
Katz’s key functions of attributions- Ego defence function
Defend self esteem, protect self image
Rate info consistent with belief as more positive e.g. I am a good student
If negative, discount the message and see source as stupid (source delegation)
Katz’s key functions of attributions- Value-expressive function
Express values integral to self-concept
Communicate who we are e.g. positive towards LGBTQ because you value equality
Katz’s key functions of attributions-Knowledge/cognitive economy function
Attitudes as ‘schemas’, organise info, predictability in world
Sort new information e,g, I like fruit so could try a new one
Yale approach to persuasion-Change attitudes though communication
WHO (source) says WHAT (message) to WHOM (audience)
Yale approach to persuasion- source characteristics
Attractive source- more persuasive
Credible source-more persuasive
Fear appeals
Strong fear appeals more persuasive however may backfire if threaten behavioural freedom which could lead to anger
Petty and Carioppo’s elaboration likelihood model (persuasion)
The two roles
Does audience have motivation and ability to elaborate on the message?
CENTRAL ROLE- effortful processing persuaded by central cues. Strength of argument determines persuasion
PERIPHERAL ROLE- automatic, persuaded by peripheral cues. Presence of cues determines persuasion
Individual differences affecting likelihood of persuasion
Audience characteristics
NEED FOR COGNITION- engaging in effortful cognition, strong arguments had larger effect if has need for cognition
SELF MONITORING- high self monitors more influenced by attractiveness
REGULATORY FOCUS-prefer things to be framed in a certain way e.g. preventative or promotion. Enhanced persuasion when matched
Elaboration likelihood model-Petty and Cacioppo
Factors determining engagement in central route
Motivation- if negative mood, high personal involvement
Ability- time to process message, enough cognitive resources, not distracted
Changing attitudes by changing behaviour: cognitive dissonance theory
Inconsistent cognitions causes unpleasant tension
If behave inconsistently with attitudes, reduce dissonance by changing attitude to match behaviour
2 ways cognitive dissonance is more likely to result in attitude change
Freedom of choice-believe experiment was interesting when paid more for it but had dissonance when paid less and has to lie
Engage in effort justification-rates embarrassing discussion more positive when more severe, justify large effort for small goal
Issues with making inferences about causation
Cannot be sure our thoughts cause actions, could be unconscious causes that have produced them both
Correlations that are cross sectional prone to consistency biases
Behaviour may cause intention
Third variable problem with longitudinal design-Stronger intention for testicular examination but low behavioural outcome
Manipulating intention study (self examination)
Persuasive audio message to self examine
Ask how much they intend to examine in next month
Ask if has performed it
-stronger notions to CHANGE ATTITUDE after message, less followed through due to intention behaviour gap
Explanations for intention behaviour gap
Intention viability- need abilities, resources and opportunities
Intention activation-conflicting goals deactivate intention (forgot)
Intention elaboration- fail to elaborate how will perform action
Meta analysis link between intentions and behaviour
47 studies
Medium to large intention gave small to medium change in behaviour
Polivy sweet wrappers
Monitoring behaviour by seeing how many sweet wrappers were on the table helped to achieve goals
Monitoring goal progress definition
Periodically note target behaviour and/or outcome and compare to desired outcome
Correlational vs experimental findings
on intentions and behaviour
- correlational studies suggest that behaviour is a function of intentions but problems with causation
- Experimental studies suggest that there is a gap between intentions and behaviour
Highly motivated diabetics and goal monitoring research
Highly motivated to monitor blood glucose
But only 20% got strips to test daily
Strong intentions but did not monitor progress, typically have ostrich problem
Monitoring goal progress and goal achievement research- exercise
and meta analysis
Intention to be exercise once a week
Self regulatory process (MONITOR GOAL PROGRESS and RESOND TO DISCREPANCIES)
Meta analysis- correlation between intentions and self regulatory processes
How monitoring goal progress can bridge action intention gap
Identify discrepancies-current place and goal
How to allocate effort- corrective action
Highly effective at getting people to monitor goal (frequency) -have to
confront progress e.g. Ostrich problem (avoid info about goal progress)
Types of progress monitoring
Monitor OUTCOMES- prompts corrective actions, more likely to influence outcomes than behaviour. More committed to goal
Monitor BEHAVIOUR (e.g., the length of a shower)- influence the performance of that behavior, may not influence outcome
=monitor what you want to achieve, greater effect on behaviour if measured and same for outcome (goal systems perspective)
Ways to make monitoring behaviour more effective
Make information public
Physically recorded
Health action process approach model
Intention (pre intentional phase) | Action planning (post intentional phase) Coping planning (post intentional phase) | Behaviour (post intentional phase)
What to take from the health action process model
Extends theory of planned behaviour
Proposes post intentional phase
Action and coping planning explains relationship between intention and behaviour (health behaviour)
Coping planning (post intentional phase)
Identifying barriers and how to deal with them e.g. not enough time
Anticipate personal risk situations
Action planning (post intentional phase)
Link goal directed behaviours to environmental cues
Specifying when, where, how to act
E.g. when to get out of bed
Helps identify salient cues that lead to action
Action planning research: tetanus
Students tetanus shot- high fear condition (repulsive descriptions) vs ACTION PLANNING condition (described details of how to get the shot)
8/9 who had shot were in action plan condition, achieved their intentions
Action and coping planning research: gamblers
Gamblers asked spending limit
Assessment only: described readiness to use strategies to stick to budget
Assessment and action: also when and how they would implement strategy, barriers to strategies
Problem gamblers in action and coping planning spent less than they intended
Actual spending was similar to low risk control
Zhang Meta analysis of actions and coping planning on behaviour
Small to Medium relationships between intention and (action and coping) planning
Small relationship between action (.09)and coping planning (0.1) on behaviour
