Social Development

Question 1

What is social development?

Answer 1

acquisition of attitudes, feelings, and behaviours that enable individuals to relate to one another and function appropriately in society

Question 2

How does social development occur?

Answer 2

Socialisation: process of inheriting and disseminating norms, customs, and ideologies

Leading to social competence: one’s ability to achieve personal goals while maintaining social relationships

Question 3

What are the 3 distinct growth periods of social development theories? What does each period emphasise?

Answer 3

Emergent period (1890-1919)
* beginning of systematic interest in child social development
* baby diaries and some empirical studies

Middle period (1920-1946)
* psychodynamic theory
* attachment theory
* behaviourism
* highlighted the importance of parent-child interactions in social development

Modern period (1947-present)
* rise of cognitive developmental theory, social cognitive theory and social information processing theory
* all emphasise the important role thought plays in an individual’s social development

Question 4

What are the key features of Bandura’s social cognitive approach?

Answer 4

• Social development strongly influenced by direct disciplinary experiences children encounter from others
• New patterns of social behaviour may be acquired by indirect methods e.g. observational learning
• Important distinctions between observational learning and performance (as in what is observed and what is actually performed)

Question 5

Explain the key experiment displaying Bandura’s theory.

Answer 5

Bobo doll experiment
* Adult shows physical aggression towards bobo doll while child watches
* Child then matches behaviour and action of violence
* Closest correlation shown when child and adult gender matched
* Calm adult behaviour matched by children
* Extended experiment to compare real and fantasy versions results matched in both conditions

Question 5

What are the key features of the social information processing theory?

Answer 5

Mechanisms of social learning
Skilful processing of information during 5 independent steps affords greater competence
* Selective encoding of internal & external cues (information our attention focuses on in our external environment, e.g. facial expressions)
* Interpreting these cues (meaning assigned to particular facial expression)
* Clarifying goals or desired outcomes (clear steps on how information travels through our systems)
* Recalling or generating possible response strategies (to the information being processed)
* Deciding on a strategy and enacting it
Processing of social stimuli is influenced by attentional biases (a cognitive effect) - information seeing in environment shapes experience of reality

Question 6

What evidence is there to support the social information processing theory?

Answer 6

Crick et al. (1996)
* Physically aggressive children
* Attend to cues of hostility
* Formulate aggressive responses
* Anticipate favourable outcomes of aggression

Nelson & Crick (1999)
* Prosocial adolescents
* Less likely to attend to hostile cues
* Negatively evaluate aggression
* Endorse peaceful solutions when provoked

Question 7

What is a limitation of the social information processing theory?

Answer 7

Overreliance on standardised questionnaires in experiments – limits ecological validity of results as not real life provoking just being asked about it

Question 8

How does Bandura’s theory compare to Social Information processing theory?

Answer 8

Theory contrasts Bandura’s theory which downplayed cognitive component of attending to social dimensions of stimuli – doesn’t get into mechanisms supporting these processes

Question 9

What aspect of how social development comes about does each theory (Bandura and Social Information Processing) tackle?

Answer 9

Bandura: learn through observation and direct disciplinary experiences

Social information processing theory: how social learning occurs

Question 10

Describe the key features of Erikson’s psychosocial theory

Answer 10

• Identification (Freud): unconscious process whereby children internalise their parents’ standards
• Focus on children’s social experiences with caregivers and broadening social group
• 8 stages of development
• Emphasised that healthy social development requires experiencing both good and bad of each stage
• Neglects cognitive rules that helps individuals learn when or where something is appropriate

Question 11

Describe the 8 stages of development in Erikson’s psychosocial theory

Answer 11

INFANCY: Trust vs mistrust
* Infant develops attitude of basic trust when caregiver attentions given willingly, lovingly, reliably and quickly in response to cries

EARLY CHILDHOOD: Autonomy vs shame/doubt
* parental guidance must be firm but protective to develop child’s autonomy

PRESCHOOL: Initiative vs guilt
* Capacity to initiate thoughts and actions grows at same time as attempting to resolve guilt related to Oedipal/Electra strivings

SCHOOL AGE: Industry vs inferiority:
* Recognition outside family is important and obtained by being industrious and producing useful work

ADOLESCENCE: Identity vs role confusion
* Integration of conflicting self-images developed since infancy in order to develop healthy ego identity

YOUNG ADULTHOOD: intimacy vs isolation
* Facing intimate social commitments with some more prepared to face demands of intimacy than others

MIDDLE ADULTHOOD: generativity vs stagnation
* Need to feel responsibility for next generation shown through having and caring for children giving part of themselves to the future

MATURITY: ego integrity vs despair
* Adults who have been cared for and who have cared for others can now care for themselves with sense of integrity (convinced that what occurred through lifetime was satisfying

Question 12

What is attachment?

Answer 12

Innate characteristic that motivates babies to seek closeness with a significant other

Children’s first attempts to form interpersonal relationships

Question 13

Why did Bowlby think attachment bonds formed?

Answer 13

attachment bonds between mothers and their infants exist because they aid species survival

Question 14

List and describe Bowlby’s 4 stages of attachment in his Ethological theory. How common is this developmental course and what process is it strongly linked to?

Answer 14

Pre-attachment (0-2MO)
* infants don’t discriminate 1 person from another
* don’t mind being left with unfamiliar adult

Attachment in the making (2-6MO)
* infants direct signals to a particular person
* recognise parents but no separation anxiety

Clear-cut attachment (6MO-4YO)
* separation anxiety

Goal-oriented partnership (4YO+)
* understand parents come and go and predict their return
* separation protests decline

Development course of attachment appears common, but the quality of attachment differs

Strong link with object permanence (or person)

Question 15

Explain Bowlby’s strange situation procedure and why it was developed.

Answer 15

Mother and stranger alternate presence with infant while playing

Developed to measure quality of attachment

Question 16

What were the 4 infant attachment styles Bowlby developed in response to the strange situation procedure?

Answer 16

Secure (approx 70%)
* may or may not be distressed by separation
* on reunion they actively approach their parent for comfort and support, reducing stress

Avoidant (approx 15%)
* usually not distressed by separation from parent
* on reunion are slow to seek comfort from parents

Ambivalent/Anxious (approx 15%)
* usually distressed by separation
* on reunion they approach parent for support but display anger and resistance to comforting

Disorganised (estimate unclear)
* display greatest amount of insecurity
* on reunion show confused behaviours such as looking away while parent holding them or dazed facial expressions

Question 17

What does evidence show about the influence of parental attachment on child social development?

Answer 17

Bohlin et al. (2000)
Securely attached infants are more:
* Socially active
* Positive and popular at school
* Report less social anxiety than insecurely attached
* Ambivalent and avoidant types not different from one another

Grossman et al. (2002)
* Mothers and fathers tend to play different roles in development
* Mothers: safe and secure base for children (hence strong influence of attachment)
* Fathers: sensitive, supporting, and gently challenging companion for exploration and play

Question 18

Overall how does parental attachment influence social development?

Answer 18

Nature of relationship and support provided from parents shapes attachment style and associated behaviour

Question 19

How do attachment styles show up in adulthood?

Answer 19

Romantic relationships
Secure
* show trust in reliability of romantic partners
* find it easy to depend and be depended on by others

Ambivalent/Anxious
* fear abandonment and often distrust their romantic partners’ availability and commitment
* jealous and preoccupied with emotional closeness

Avoidant
* avoid emotional dependence and deny attachment needs
* have difficulty developing intimate relationships

Influences effect of break-up
* Secure: moderately upset
* Ambivalent: surprise, greater depression
* Avoidant: relief

Question 20

Describe Baumrind’s model of parenting styles. What are the 4 parenting styles according to this model?

Y and X axis

Answer 20

Y-axis: demandingness/control (D)
* expectations/involvement of parent surrounding what child will do

X-axis: responsiveness/acceptance (R)
* degree of responsiveness of the parent in working with the child where they’re at

High D & High R: authoritative
* high expectations but support to meet them

High D and Low R: authoritarian
* outdated Western parenting view

Low D and Low R: neglectful
* children feel invisible and that no one is there for them

Low D and High R: indulgent/permissive
* no directional guidance

Question 21

What outcomes does each of the parenting styles lead to in terms of children’s development?

Answer 21

Authoritarian
* low self-esteem and independence
* vulnerability to stress

Authoritative
* higher social, intellectual and academic competence
* predicts secure attachment

Neglectful
* poor self-control
* low self-esteem
* immature
* don’t handle independence well
* predicts avoidant attachment

Indulgent/permissive
* unable to control aggressive impulses
* have trouble with substance abuse in adolescence
* often still see secure attachment

Question 22

What parenting style tends to result in anxious/ambivalent attachment?

Answer 22

appears following inconsistent parenting styles (parent only there sometimes and unpredictable environment for child)

Question 23

How does gender identity develop according to Bandura’s social cognitive theory?

Answer 23

Gender identity an outcome of complex interactions between:
* Child (cognitive states)
* Behaviour (activity)
* Environment (social influences)

Question 24

Explain how each of the 3 elements interact according to Bandura.

Answer 24

Person - Behaviour * cognitive processing of direct and indirect experiences reinforces gender roles and identity * e.g. same-gender peers engaging in particular activities over others Behaviour - Environment * parents provide gendered evaluative feedback * mothers discourage gender-atypical activities * fathers encourage rough and tumble play for sons more than daughters Environment - Person * children categorise people on basis of gender by 7MO * probably due to direct experience with parents and significant others

Question 25

How does gender identity develop in childhood according to Bandura? Describe the changes at each age bracket. | 3 age categories. GI, toy & playmate preference, play style

Answer 25

3-4YO Gender identity * identify gender on basis of physical appearance * believe one can change gender by changing physical appearance Toy preference * emerges @ 1YO * by 3YO gendered toys more likely Playmate preference * preference for same-sex playmates (driven by children not adults) Play style * boys = rough and tumble play * girls = more talking and social role play 5-7YO Gender identity * gender constancy develops * closely related to Piaget's conservation stage of developmen Toy preference * sex differences maintained with emerging preference for neutral objects * e.g. scone-cutter Playmate preference * gender segregation becomes stronger * general avoidance of opposite sex playmates Play style * continue to diverge * dominance and status important to boys * girls prefer horizontal social relationships 8-11YO Gender identity * increasingly flexible knowledge of gender * e.g. both genders are capable of anything Toy preference * strong preference for age-appropriate sex-typed toys Playmate preference * same-sex playmate preference strongest among primary school children Play style * boys: competitive games in large groups * girls: spend more time w/ close friends

Question 26

How does Bandura's theory of gender identity compare to modern findings?

Answer 26

Findings may vary due to development of education to parents and modern styles of socialisation attempting to avoid outdated gender norms Toy preferences due to socialisation

Question 27

What are 4 key elements of gender-typed behaviour development

Answer 27

Social cognitive theory suggests gender-typed behaviours developed as result of parental reinforcement and modelling from birth Gender intensification: process in which adolescents face increasing pressure to conform to culturally stereotypical gender roles Sex segregation: children's tendency to play with others of their own sex Interpersonal theory: proposes that same-sex friendships are the foundation of identity and intimacy development during childhood and adolescence

Question 28

What are the 3 key features of Levinson's theory of adulthood life structure development?

Answer 28

Eras: periods in the adult life cycle that reflect major changes in our lives Transition: period when a new era begins as the previous one is approaching its end Life structure: underlying pattern or design of a person's life at a given time

Question 29

What are 3 key processes involved in adulthood romantic partnerships?

Answer 29

Social penetration: refers both to external behaviour and internal feelings that precede accompany and follow behaviour – the process that underlies relationships Breadth of interactions: range of topics we discuss in relationships Depth of interactions: level on which we discuss topics and interact in relationships

Question 30

Explain selectivity theory and why it is thought to underly late adult loneliness.

Answer 30

asserts that as older adults we decide to confine our social involvement to fewer but more intimate relationships

Question 31

What is a biological influence of gender identity development? What does the evidence show regarding this influence?

Answer 31

Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH) * Genetic disorder involving deficiency in enzyme needed to produce cortisol * Children born with ambiguous genitalia * Typically reconstructed to resemble their genetic gender * Not the same thing as gender dysphoria disorder Golombok & Hines (2002) * Girls with CAH show reduced satisfaction with gender identity and reduced preference for female playmates * Not the case for boys * Impact of atypicality in hormones

Question 32

What are 3 environmental influences on gender identity development? What does evidence say regarding each of these influences?

Answer 32

Family and peer influences * Parents and peers model and sanction gender-typed behaviours * This may be changing due to progressiveness of society (Priess et al., 2009) Self-regulatory processes * Children seek out like-minded peers, reinforcing gender identity * Highly gender-typed children experience more positive emotions when playing with same gender peers (Martin & Ruble, 2010) * Less gender-typed children show no difference in emotions when playing with same or different gender peers (individual differences) Siblings * First-born siblings influence gender role attitudes of second-born peers (McHale et al., 2001)

Question 33

How do modern family contexts influence gender identity development?

Answer 33

Father absence * Girls' sex-typed behaviour unaffected, boys less stereotypical (but small effect) Single-parent households * Gender of single parent does not significantly influence psychological and educational outcomes of children but quality of parenting does Same-sex parents * No difference in parent-child interaction, peer relations, and gender identity * Children of same-sex parents have more flexible ideas about gender roles

Question 34

What is prosocial behaviour?

Answer 34

Voluntary behaviour intended to benefit another

Question 35

What is altruism?

Answer 35

intrinsically motivated, voluntary behaviour intended to benefit another with no benefit to the self (sometimes at cost to donor) 

Question 36

How to prosocial behaviours differ from altruistic behaviours?

Answer 36

Prosocial behaviours can be motivated by personal gain (ie can be transactional), but altruistic behaviours are only ever motivated by desire to help in the absence of tangible rewards

Question 37

Why is it thought that humans behave prosocially?

Answer 37

Prosocial behaviour advantageous at the individual and group levels * Prosocial behaviour to kin members increases chance of passing on shared traits * Prosocial behaviour to non-kin members increases likelihood of reciprocity Computational modelling * 'Individuals' with a propensity toward helping others experience greater population growth over generations * Cooperative individuals in societies tend to boom

Question 38

Describe the studies showing how prosocial behaviour appears in children. (2)

Answer 38

Hoffman (1975) * Child trying to comfort friend through multiple methods Greener & Crick (1999) * 8-11YO asked what they would do to be nice * Little overlap between experimenter and child defined behaviours * Adult experimenter defined: sharing toys, comforting, helping, donating, kindness/consideration * Children: use humour, be friends, avoid being mean, include others, end conflict, trust others, share

Question 39

How does the genetic influence of prosocial behaviour change across development? What are the possible explanations for these changes?

Answer 39

Genetic influence on prosocial behaviour changes across development * Infants 0-30% * Adolescents 30-80% * Adulthood even greater Why? * Later emerging cognitive competencies that influence prosocial behaviour (e.g. perspective taking) have partial genetic basis * Prosocial behaviour is likely to be polygenic; some contributing genes may not be switched on until later * Different procedures used to measure prosocial behaviour at different ages (may not be comparable)

Question 40

How is parental socialisation thought to impact child prosocial behaviour?

Answer 40

Extrinsic rewarding of prosocial behaviour doesn't work; attributing prosocial behaviour to dispositional traits does (e.g. telling child helped because they're kind) Parents who discuss the causes of their emotions have children with greater empathy (mind-mindedness – alerting children to implications and motivations of others), scaffolding by parents of ToM skills Who routinely perform household work that benefits others more likely to be prosocial = teamwork dynamic in families Parents who comply with reasonable requests have more compliant children = 2 way street seems to stop wall being put up and facilitates better communication

Question 41

How do peers and teachers influence child prosocial behaviour?

Answer 41

Peers * Children more similar to friends than acquaintances on tendency to help * Children who help and share are more popular (and receive more help) Teachers * Less nurturing teachers = students who are rated as less nice * Interventions where teachers are trained to encourage prosocial behaviour results in long-term increases in children's self-ratings of prosocial behaviour

Question 42

How does prosocial behaviour vary across cultural contexts? Describe a study that shows this variation.

Answer 42

Cultures vary greatly in degree to what types of prosocial behaviour is normative Cooperation board * Children of all cultures cooperate when group is rewarded (universal) * When individual is rewarded cultural differences become manifest (culturally mediated) * Children from western cultures competitive * Children from traditional, agricultural communities more cooperative (e.g. rural Mexico, traditional Maori) * However difference may also be due to town vs country * Features of traditional and agricultural lifestyle promote prosocial behaviour

Question 43

How does prosocial behaviour vary across cultures according to Whiting & Whiting's 1975 Ethnographic study? What are the key predictors of prosocial behaviour?

Answer 43

* Children's prosocial behaviour most associated with assignment of chores and taking responsibility for the family's economic welfare * Direct relationship to female contribution to economy * Emphasises importance of daily routines in development of concern for others * Dependency, shared goals, and defined community roles foster prosocial behaviour * Independence, individualistic goals, and undefined community roles do not

Question 44

How does prosocial behaviour vary according to gender differences? What alternative explanations could there be for these results?

Answer 44

Girls commonly believed to be more prosocial than boys – evidence is equivocal Eisenberg & Fabes (1998) * Modest sex differences, but they depend on type of behaviour studied * Girls more kind & considerate, not more likely to share, comfort or help Some sex differences may be artifacts of measurement – parents tend to rate certain prosocial behaviours as more desirable in girls than boys, and praise girls more than boys

Question 45

What are the findings of prosocial behaviour according to social class differences?

Answer 45

Mixed findings – many methodological problems, including defining appropriate comparison behaviour Social norms differ among classes (Dremen & Greenbaum, 1973; Gupta, 1982) * Middle class children shared more candy with peers when they thought their identity would be known to a recipient than in an anonymous condition * Lower class children – no difference or opposite * Middle class – norm of social exchange * Upper class – norm of communal sharing and mutual aid

Question 46

Define sterotyping and prejudice.

Answer 46

Stereotyping: a widely shared and simplified evaluative image of a social group and its members (positive or negative) Prejudice: an intense dislike based upon a faulty and inflexible generalisation

Question 47

What is Developmental Intergroup Theory? According to this theory what are the 3 core processes that lead to prejudice?

Answer 47

* Originates from social identity theory: we enhance our self-concept through in-group favouritism * In group members are similar, diverse and favourable * Out-group members are different, homogenous and unfavourable 3 core processes that lead to prejudice * Establishing psychological salience of others' attributes (e.g. race, gender, sexuality) * Categorising individuals by salient characteristics * Developing stereotypes and prejudices

Question 48

What evidence is there to show when racial preference emerges in children?

Answer 48

Kinzler & Spelke (2010) * 10MO and 2.5YO choice not dependent on race of individual * 5YO strong racial preference to white individual (in-group race)

Question 49

What are the 2 types of processing associated racial prejudice?

Answer 49

Knowledge of a cultural stereotype (automatic processing) Acceptance or endorsement of the stereotyope (controlled processing)

Question 50

How are people with high and low prejudice the same and how do they differ?

Answer 50

Share automatically activated stereotypes about a group Differ on * Beliefs about groups described by stereotypes (implicit stereotype overlap) * Ability to inhibit automatically activated responses

Question 51

Explain the Implicit Association Test and what it is infered to measure? What were the findings of this test across development?

Answer 51

Explain * Pair white faces w/ good/positive words/symbols and pair black faces w/ bad/negative words/symbols What * Testing how reaction times are affected by these associations Findings * explicit bias decreases with age * implicit bias remains unchanged with age

Question 52

What did White & Gleitzman (2006) find about the generational transmission of racial prejudice?

Answer 52

Subtle (absence of positive feeling) and blatant (traditional) racial prejudice towards Aboriginal and Asian-Australians passed down generationally