Social emotional functions of BHD & Mental health Flashcards
(229 cards)
1
Q
How do mood disorders differ from emotions?
A
Mood disorders, such as depression or anxiety disorders, differ from the emotion of feeling sad or anxious; the former are persistent conditions, while the latter are temporary emotional responses.
2
Q
What are the key components of emotions?
A
Physiology: The bodily responses associated with emotions (e.g., heart rate, sweating).
Phenomenology (Experience): The subjective experience or feeling associated with the emotion (e.g., feeling happy, sad).
Expression/Signaling: How emotions are communicated to others (e.g., facial expressions, body language).
Cognitions: The thoughts and beliefs that accompany emotions (e.g., interpreting a situation).
Behavior: The actions taken as a result of emotional experiences (e.g., crying, laughing).
3
Q
Why do we experience emotions?
A
Not Random: Emotions are not experienced randomly; they are responses to perceived changes in situations that matter to us.
Appraisal: Our perception or evaluation of events, known as appraisal, determines our emotional responses.
Individual Differences: Different individuals can have varying emotional responses to the same event due to unique appraisals.
Significance: Emotions arise from our observations and assessments of how events affect our lives.
4
Q
What is the evaluation (appraisal) process in emotions?
A
Stimulus or Event: An event occurs (e.g., “The entry requirements for medicine are lowered,” or “Taylor Swift comes to NZ”).
Appraisal: The event is evaluated for its meaning and significance.
Emotional Response: Different individuals respond emotionally based on their appraisals:
5
Q
What are the reasons behind the existence of emotions?
A
Evolved Biological Phenomena: Emotions are products of evolution, serving essential functions.
Evidence in Other Species: Emotions are not exclusive to humans; they can also be observed in other animals.
Influence of Evolutionary Theory: Darwin’s work, particularly The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals (1872), supports the idea that emotions have evolutionary significance.
Human Emotion vs. Other Species: Humans have a broader range of emotions due to our advanced capacities and unique lifestyles.
Facilitated Adaptation: Emotions were shaped through evolution to help us adapt to various events, serving important purposes in survival and social interaction.
6
Q
What does a biological view of emotions suggest about their expression and recognition across different cultures?
A
Cultural Similarity: Emotions are believed to be similar across cultures, supported by early evidence such as Ekman’s research in the 1960s, which indicated similarities in expression and recognition of emotions.
Variations in Emotion Systems: Despite similarities in expression, there are cultural variations in how emotions are valued and experienced.
Example: In many Asian cultures, ‘low arousal’ positive emotions (like contentment and calm) are more highly valued compared to ‘high arousal’ positive emotions (like excitement).
7
Q
What evidence supports the evolutionary basis of emotions in infants?
A
Response Patterns: Infants exhibit response patterns that align with adult emotions, such as frustration, fear, and happiness.
Social Awareness: They are highly attuned to emotions in their social environment, using others’ expressions as informational cues.
Emotional Competence: Infants show surprising competence in recognizing and discriminating among different emotions, demonstrating this ability as early as 4 months of age.
8
Q
How do emotions change throughout the lifespan?
A
Increased Emotional Repertoire: As we develop, we acquire more complex emotions, including social-moral emotions such as embarrassment, pride, guilt, and shame.
Better Decoupling: Older individuals are more skilled at experiencing emotions without allowing them to dictate their behavior.
Blended Emotional Experiences: Emotional experiences tend to become more blended and nuanced with age.
9
Q
What is emotion regulation and why is it important?
A
Definition: Emotion regulation refers to the processes by which individuals influence which emotions they have, when they have them, and how they experience and express them (Gross, 1998).
Importance:
It is crucial for healthy emotional functioning and is a sophisticated skill.
Adults typically express emotions in a regulated state, while infants and small children have limited ability to regulate emotions, often relying on parents for support.
Emotion regulation is complex, dependent on knowledge and capacity.
Examples: Techniques include situation reappraisal, situation selection, distraction, suppression, avoidance (e.g., substances), disclosure, mindfulness, and response modulation (e.g., deep breathing).
10
Q
How do emotions influence symptom attention?
A
Emotions can affect the awareness and sensitivity to symptoms, leading to greater reporting and recognition of health issues.
11
Q
What role do emotions play in medical contact and detection?
A
Emotions influence the likelihood of seeking medical help and participating in health screenings, affecting early detection of conditions.
12
Q
How do emotions affect treatment decision-making?
A
Emotional states can impact individuals’ choices regarding treatment options, influencing their approach to managing health.
13
Q
What is the relationship between emotions and treatment adherence?
A
Emotions and emotion regulation play a significant role in following prescribed treatment plans and maintaining adherence.
14
Q
How do emotions influence the health journey?
A
Emotions affect the overall experience and management of health, shaping individuals’ perceptions and responses throughout their health journey.
15
Q
In what ways do emotions contribute to disease dynamics?
A
Emotions can influence the initiation, progression, and diagnosis of diseases, affecting both physical and mental health outcomes.
16
Q
What health outcomes are linked to negative emotions?
A
Negative emotions have been associated with various conditions, including heart disease, cancer, arthritis, diabetes, and the common cold.
17
Q
Which negative emotions are particularly linked to heart disease?
A
Emotions such as anger, anxiety (fear), and sadness have been specifically linked to heart disease. Negative emotions can lead to heart muscle damage, alterations in clotting processes, and increased physiological arousal.
18
Q
What beneficial health outcomes are linked to positive emotions?
A
Positive emotions, particularly happiness and pride, are associated with quicker physiological recovery, lower mortality, reduced readmission rates, and greater survival time in cancer.
19
Q
How does emotion regulation skill affect heart health?
A
Poor self-regulation is a predictor of cardiovascular disease outcomes, as shown in the Normative Aging Study. The ability to express emotions is linked to heart rate variability, indicating a connection between emotion regulatory skills and cardiovascular health
20
Q
How do emotions influence health behaviors?
A
Emotions affect health indirectly through behavior, with negative emotions predicting poorer health behaviors and positive emotions predicting better health behaviors.
21
Q
What health behaviors are associated with greater negative emotions?
A
Greater negative emotions are linked to damaging health behaviors such as drug and alcohol abuse, poor diet, overeating, less exercise, and smoking (initiation, cessation, relapse)
22
Q
What types of health behaviors are associated with positive emotions?
A
Positive emotions generally predict better health behaviors, contributing to healthier lifestyle choices.
23
Q
What is the impact of routine negative emotions on health behaviors?
A
Experiencing greater negative emotions on a regular basis is associated with a higher likelihood of engaging in harmful health behaviors.
24
Q
How do negative emotions affect our perception of health symptoms?
A
Negative emotions can increase awareness of symptoms, change how we interpret them, and alter our responses, often leading to elevated symptom reports.
25
What is the relationship between negative affect and symptom reporting?
Negative affect is associated with elevated reports of non-specific symptoms due to a tendency to focus more inwardly.
26
Is the relationship between emotions and symptom reporting one-directional?
No, the relationship is likely bidirectional; negative emotions can increase symptom awareness, while experiencing symptoms can also affect emotional state.
27
How do positive emotions influence our experience of symptoms?
Positive emotions are associated with fewer aches and pains and increased attention to self-relevant health information.
28
How do emotional responses affect help-seeking behavior?
Negative emotions can drive help-seeking behavior, but the outcome depends on the source of the emotional response; for example, fear may lead to avoidance.
29
When can positive emotions play a role in health screening?
Positive emotions can occur after receiving a negative diagnosis and may help sustain health-seeking behavior or motivate individuals to repeat screenings over time.
30
How do emotions influence medical decision-making?
Emotions significantly influence decision-making, especially under stress or in situations that are complex or uncertain.
31
What role do negative emotions play in treatment decision-making?
Negative emotions, such as embarrassment, can predict avoidance of treatment, particularly in sensitive areas like sexual health.
32
How do positive emotions impact health decision-making?
Positive emotions can facilitate health decision-making, as described by the Broaden and Build Model (Fredrickson, 1998).
33
How does fear of taking treatment affect adherence?
Fear of taking the treatment makes individuals less likely to adhere to their prescribed regimen.
34
How does fear about health influence treatment adherence?
Fear about one's health can increase the likelihood of adhering to treatment.
35
What effect does feeling disgusted by treatment have on adherence?
Feeling disgusted by the treatment makes individuals less likely to adhere.
36
How does feeling disgusted by symptoms impact treatment adherence?
Feeling disgusted by experienced symptoms can increase the likelihood of adhering to treatment.
37
What is
attachment?
Strong, enduring, affectionate connection that humans share with the special people in their lives
38
What is the cupboard view of attachment?
The cupboard view suggests that attachment is primarily based on the provision of food and physical needs for survival, as proposed by Freud and others.
39
What is the comfort view of attachment?
The comfort view, advocated by Harlow and others, posits that attachment goes beyond physical needs; babies also require contact comfort and emotional love for healthy development.
40
What concept did Harlow's study highlight regarding attachment?
Harlow's study highlighted the concept of "contact comfort," indicating that emotional support and physical contact are crucial for developing attachment, beyond just meeting basic needs like hunger.
41
What are the key principles of Bowlby's attachment theory?
Bowlby (1969) emphasized the significance of relationships throughout life, viewing the mother-infant bond as an evolved response essential for survival. He proposed that babies possess built-in behaviors, such as crying, that promote proximity to caregivers, facilitating emotional and social development through responsive interactions, which form the basis for early relationships
42
Proximity seeking
Actively seeking to be near the primary caregiver, especially when distressed.
43
Comfort Seeking
Seeking comfort when upset and being easily soothed by the caregiver.
44
Separation/Stranger Anxiety
Feeling upset at the departure of a familiar caregiver and exhibiting fear of strangers.
45
Secure Base
Caregivers provide a secure base from which the child feels confident to explore their environment.
46
What is the secure attachment pattern?
Characteristics: Children use caregiver as a secure base; show distress when caregiver leaves; seek comfort upon return.
Parental Responsiveness: High (≈60%).
47
What is the insecure avoidant attachment pattern?
Characteristics: Children are indifferent to caregiver's departure and return; do not seek much contact or comfort.
Parental Responsiveness: Low (≈15%).
48
What is the insecure-anxious/ambivalent attachment pattern?
Characteristics: Children show significant distress when caregiver leaves; ambivalent upon return (seek and then resist comfort).
Parental Responsiveness: Inconsistent (≈15%).
49
What is the disorganized attachment pattern?
Characteristics: Children appear depressed/unresponsive/fearful; lack an organized strategy for achieving closeness when distressed.
Parental Responsiveness: Erratic, frightening, intrusive, or withdrawal (≈10%; up to 80% in maltreated populations).
50
Parenting Styles
Authoritative: High responsiveness, reasonable demands.
Permissive: High responsiveness, low demands.
Authoritarian: Low responsiveness, high demands.
Uninvolved: Low responsiveness, low demands.
51
Quality of Caregiving - Parenting
The best predictor of secure attachment is sensitive, responsive parenting, which fosters a healthy emotional bond between parent and child.
Key Concepts:
Sensitive, Responsive Parenting:
Ability to perceive and interpret child’s signals and intentions.
Responding appropriately and promptly to meet child’s needs.
Goodness of Fit:
Understanding the child’s temperament and matching interaction style.
Ensuring the parenting approach aligns with the child’s environmental demands.
52
How do infants engage adults in the ‘Serve and Return’ relationship?
Infants are "prewired" to engage adults through behaviors like cooing, crying, and smiling that prompt a response.
53
Why is the ‘Serve and Return’ relationship important?
It is fundamental for early brain development and social-emotional development, significantly influencing the child's attachment security.
54
What does the ‘Serve and Return’ relationship illustrate about development?
It highlights the importance of both genetic/biological factors and environmental influences in a child's development.
55
What is child temperament?
Early appearing and stable dispositions that are largely biologically/genetically based and persist into adulthood, influencing behavior in areas like activity, emotion, attention, self-regulation, and sociability.
56
Stability of Temperament
Temperament persists through adulthood but is likely to become less extreme, e.g., a child may grow from being shy to being more socially engaged.
57
What are the three categories of child temperament?
Easy (40%): Generally adaptable and positive.
Difficult (10%): More intense and reactive.
Slow-to-warm-up (15%): Initially hesitant but eventually adapts.
58
What are the two types of temperament in Kagan’s model?
Bold/uninhibited and inhibited, which relates to sensitivity to physical and social stimulation.
59
What behaviors are associated with a shy/inhibited temperament in infants?
Lower levels of crying and excitability, with increased fearfulness in unfamiliar contexts.
60
What are the characteristics of toddlers with a shy/inhibited temperament?
They tend to be consistently shy, quiet, and timid, displaying more fear in unfamiliar situations.
61
What is the concept of "goodness of fit"?
The idea that sensitive parenting can encourage adaptive functioning and positive development by matching parenting styles to a child's temperament.
62
How does temperament relate to health risk behaviors?
A 'bold/uninhibited' temperament can lead to impulsivity and unsafe behaviors, such as dangerous driving and alcohol dependence.
63
What factors affect parent-child interaction?
Factors include low socioeconomic status, family stress, family violence, parental mental health/substance abuse, parent attachment history, and major life changes (e.g., divorce, job loss, migration).
64
How do family circumstances affect parenting?
Family circumstances can make it harder to deal with parenting challenges, such as caring for a sick baby or managing a child's difficult behavior.
65
How do parent circumstances influence sensitivity and responsiveness?
Factors like stress and mental health can affect a parent's ability to be sensitive and responsive, impacting their interaction with the child.
66
What is the flow-on effect of family context on attachment?
The challenges faced by parents can lead to lower sensitivity and responsiveness, which negatively impacts the quality of attachment between parent and child.
67
What is the original model of attachment theory based on?
The original model is based on Western middle-class families and individualist culture and values. There is a need to be aware of biases and differences that may not reflect dysfunction in non-Western contexts.
68
What is toxic stress?
Toxic stress refers to the harmful effects on the body and brain from prolonged or severe stress, particularly due to maltreatment. It disrupts the developing brain architecture and can also affect other organ and immune systems. Increased lifelong risk for physical and psychological disorders.
69
How does neglect affect neural connections?
The principle of "use it or lose it" applies, meaning that neglect can lead to the loss of neural connections that are not utilized.
70
Consequences of maltreatment. Behavioural development:
– Physical abuse, exposure violence promotes use of aggressive behaviour by child
– Conduct problems, antisocial behaviour
– Self destructive behavior
– Sexualised/risky behavior assoc. with childhood sexual abuse
– Negative effect on schooling though non-compliance, poor motivation
– Substance abuse
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Consequences of maltreatment. Social-emotional development:
* Negative effect on social adjustment/skills & self esteem
* Problems with emotional regulation
* Insecure attachment
* Impaired parenting – some studies show more like to go on to abuse own children
* Increased risk for wide range of mental health problems
* E.g. Depression, anxiety, PTSD
* Abusive mothers more likely to have experienced abuse
* Boys more likely to go on to abuse partners
72
What is one key way to support parents and caregivers in raising children non-violently?
Provide support and education to teach positive parenting strategies and child development.
73
How can children's knowledge of abuse and protection be improved?
Through education and life skills training to help them recognize abuse and interact in positive ways.
74
What societal norms should be promoted to reduce violence against children?
Norms and values that support pro-social, non-violent behavior.
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What kind of economic interventions are recommended to support children?
Income and economic strengthening interventions that increase investments in children.
76
What services should be provided to children exposed to violence?
Response and support services to assist children who have been exposed to violence.
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What legal measures can help protect children from violent punishment?
Implementation and enforcement of laws banning violent punishment by parents, teachers, or caregivers.
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Brain Plasticity and Positive Change
Definition: The ability of the nervous system to change its connections.
Development: Early years are crucial, but the brain continues to develop and adapt beyond childhood.
Opportunities: Continuous opportunities exist to promote positive outcomes.
Possibility of Change: Healthy functioning and well-being are always possible, regardless of early experiences.
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Social interaction
Definition: Processes by
which people act and react in
relation to others
* Dynamic – Individuals
influence each other’s
behaviour and responses
* e.g., prejudice; aggression,
attraction (ours and other
peoples)
80
Social influence
Definition: Processes through which we are influenced by others,
such as aligning with others group norms and expectations
Occurs via:
* Interactions between people
* Situational factors
* Social norms/rules/roles
Studies to illustrate key concepts:
* Conformity
* Social roles
* Bystander effect
* Obedience
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Conformity
Tendency of people to alter
their behaviour or attitude as a result of group pressure
* Going along with the crowd – accommodate standards/values of peers or group
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Normative Influence
Definition: The desire to be liked, accepted, and approved by others drives conformity.
Example: Individuals conform to group norms to avoid rejection.
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Informational Influence
Definition: The desire to be correct and understand how to act leads individuals to follow group behavior.
Example: People look to others for guidance in ambiguous situations.
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Personality Factors
Key Point: Individuals with lower self-esteem are more prone to conform.
Implication: Self-esteem influences susceptibility to social pressure.
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Uniformity of Agreement
Key Point: Higher conformity occurs when all group members give the same incorrect answer.
Example: In group tasks, consensus leads to individual conformity.
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Flashcard 5: Social Roles
Definition: Patterns of behavior expected in specific settings influence conformity.
Example: Different behaviors are expected at home versus work.
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Flashcard 6: Social Rules
Definition: Provide implicit or explicit behavioral guidelines for specific settings.
Types: Social rules can be formal or informal.
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Deindividuation
Definition: Anonymity or lack of personal identity makes individuals more susceptible to social influence.
Effect: May lead to uncharacteristic behavior in groups.
89
Dissension
Key Point: If even one group member provides a different answer, conformity decreases.
Example: A lone dissenter can encourage independent thinking.
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Cultural Factors
Key Point: Conformity tends to be higher in collectivist cultures compared to individualist cultures.
Implication: Cultural values shape conformity behavior.
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Group Size
Key Point: Groups of five or more elicit higher conformity than smaller groups.
Example: Larger groups increase pressure to conform.
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Bystander Effect
The phenomenon where the likelihood of offering assistance decreases as the number of bystanders increases.
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Purpose of Darley & Latane's Study (1968)
Objective: To investigate people's willingness to help strangers in distress and how social situations affect this willingness.
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Key Findings on Bystander Behaviour
Anonymity: Bystanders who feel anonymous (e.g., in a large crowd) are less likely to offer help.
Group Size Effect: Bystanders act most quickly when in smaller groups (e.g., two-person groups).
95
Diffusion of Responsibility
The diminished sense of personal responsibility to act when others are present, leading to a belief that someone else will intervene.
96
Affective Empathy
Definition: The process in which individuals directly and subjectively experience and share the emotional state of another person.
Role in Bystander Intervention: May motivate individuals to help based on emotional resonance with the victim.
97
Cognitive Empathy
Definition: The process of understanding another person’s perspective from an objective standpoint, often described as "detached concern."
Role in Bystander Intervention: Considered the most influential factor in prompting bystander intervention by enabling individuals to recognize the need for help.
98
Clinical Empathy
A complex construct that encompasses more than just compassion, integrating both affective and cognitive components.
Inner Sense of Empathy: Combines both affective (emotional) and cognitive (intellectual) aspects.
Empathy Behavior: Involves genuine concern and effective empathic communication with patients
99
Ambiguity of Situation
When people are uncertain about how to behave, they often look for cues from authority figures or experts and follow their instructions.
100
Confusion About How to Dissent
When dissenting is unclear or unsuccessful, confusion often leads individuals to comply with the authority figure instead of challenging them.
101
Obedience as a Social Norm
Obedience to authority is a social norm, largely taught from childhood. People are generally conditioned to obey authority figures without questioning them.
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Social Norms
Social norms are the expectations that a group has for its members regarding what is considered acceptable and appropriate behavior.
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Emotions
Definition: Brief, diverse, and serve a function.
Duration: Last seconds to minutes.
Components: Cognitive and physiological aspects.
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Mood
Definition: Longer-lasting emotional state.
Duration: Cumulative over days, weeks, or years.
Influences: Affected by emotions, physical health, cognitive biases, social supports, and spirituality.
105
Mood Continuum
Manic: Extreme elevated mood, energy, and activity levels.
Hypomanic: Mildly elevated mood, less intense than mania.
Euthymic: Stable and normal mood.
Dysthymic: Persistent mild depression.
Depression: Severe low mood and lack of energy.
106
Major Depression - Diagnostic Criteria
Depressed Mood: Persistent feelings of sadness or emptiness.
Diminished Interest/Pleasure: Loss of interest in activities once enjoyed.
Weight Loss/Gain: Significant change in body weight or appetite.
Insomnia/Hypersomnia: Difficulty sleeping or excessive sleep.
Motor Agitation/Retardation: Noticeable restlessness or physical slowing.
Fatigue/Loss of Energy: Persistent tiredness, even without physical activity.
Feelings of Worthlessness: Excessive guilt or feelings of being unworthy.
Diminished Thinking: Difficulty concentrating or making decisions.
Thoughts of Death: Recurrent thoughts of death, suicidal ideation, or attempts.
Types of Major Depression
Single Episode: Occurs once.
Recurrent: Multiple episodes over time.
107
Manic Episode
Abnormally elevated, expansive, or irritable mood and increased energy.
Duration: At least 1 week.
Must include 3 or more additional symptoms (e.g., grandiosity, decreased need for sleep, talkativeness).
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Hypomanic Episode
Abnormally elevated, expansive, or irritable mood and increased energy.
Duration: At least 4 days.
Must include 3 or more additional symptoms.
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A Behavioural Model of Depression
The behavioural model posits that depression stems from a low rate of positive reinforcement due to a lack of rewards from activities.
When depressed individuals don't experience pay-offs from their efforts, they may stop engaging in enjoyable activities, leading to a shrinking personal and social life.
To combat depression, the model suggests that individuals should push themselves to participate in pleasant activities; even small actions, like getting out of bed, can be the first step towards overcoming depression.
110
A Cognitive Model of Depression
The cognitive model posits that depression arises from negative beliefs about oneself, the world, and the future.
These negative schemas develop from early experiences of loss, failure, and rejection, and are activated by stressful events later in life, reinforcing negative experiences.
Individuals with depression have a bleak worldview, skewing their interpretation of experiences negatively and biasing their memory towards negative events.
Cognitive distortions further exacerbate this pattern, leading to distorted thinking and influencing emotional and behavioral responses.
111
Core Components of depression:
Core Beliefs: Fundamental negative beliefs about oneself and the world.
Intermediate Beliefs: Assumptions derived from core beliefs.
Situation Interpretation: How situations are perceived based on beliefs.
Physical, Behavioral & Environmental Consequences: The outcomes of these interpretations on behavior and environment.
112
Biological Model of Depression
The biological model of depression suggests several key factors:
The serotonin transporter gene may play a role, especially in conjunction with stressful life experiences.
Twin studies indicate a moderate genetic influence on the risk of depression.
Reduced activity of norepinephrine (noradrenaline) is associated with depression.
Diminished neurogenesis (growth of new neurons) leads to lower hippocampal volume.
Problems in the brain's reward and stress-response systems are linked to decreased levels of dopamine.
Inflammation, whether from infection or an exaggerated immune response, may trigger some cases of depression and other mental disorders like schizophrenia.
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PHOBIAS
An irrational fear of an object or situation
114
PANIC DISORDER
Intense attacks of fear and terror that are not
justified by the situation
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SOCIAL
ANXIETY
A persistent fear of social or
performance situations
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GENERALISED ANXIETY
Worry about worry and everything else
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Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
Definition: A debilitating mental health disorder characterized by the presence of obsessions and compulsions.
Obsessions:
Unwanted ideas, images, or impulses that intrude on thoughts against a person’s wishes.
Often involve themes of harm, risk, and danger.
Compulsions:
Urges to perform certain actions to alleviate feelings of anxiety or discomfort.
Typically consist of repetitive, purposeful behaviors known as rituals.
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Psychotic Disorders
Mental disorders characterized by experiences qualitatively different from normal, often involving a loss of reality testing and bizarre behavior.
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Key Features of Psychotic Disorders
Thought Form: Loosening of associations.
Thought Content: Presence of delusions (fixed false beliefs inconsistent with cultural norms).
Perception: Hallucinations (perceptions experienced without external stimuli).
Language: Disconnected ideas.
Affect: Flat emotions.
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Delusions
Definition: Fixed false beliefs not aligned with cultural context.
Associated Absences:
Emotion
Motivation
Abstract thought
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Cognitive Symptoms in Psychotic Disorders
Impairments in memory and concentration.
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Types of Symptoms
Positive Symptoms: Present during acute phases (e.g., hallucinations, delusions).
Negative Symptoms: Absence of normal emotional responses, motivation, and cognitive functioning.
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SCHIZOPHRENIA
Re-interpretation of
or a loss of reality
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Personality Disorders Overview
Enduring patterns of behavior, cognition, and inner experience that deviate markedly from cultural expectations, leading to distress or impairment.
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Cluster A Personality Disorders
Characteristics: Odd and eccentric behavior.
Disorders:
Paranoid
Schizoid
Schizotypal
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Cluster B Personality Disorders
Characteristics: Dramatic and erratic behavior.
Disorders:
Antisocial
Borderline
Histrionic
Narcissistic
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Flashcard 4: Cluster C Personality Disorders
Characteristics: Fearful and anxious behavior.
Disorders:
Avoidant
Dependent
Obsessive-Compulsive
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5 P Model of Mental Health
Predisposing Factors: Factors that increase the likelihood of developing a disorder (e.g., genetic, environmental).
Perpetuating Factors: Factors that maintain or exacerbate the disorder (e.g., maladaptive coping strategies, ongoing stressors).
Protective Factors: Factors that reduce the risk of developing a disorder or mitigate its impact (e.g., strong social support, effective coping mechanisms).
Treatment: Interventions aimed at addressing the disorder (e.g., therapy, medication).
Relapse Prevention: Strategies to reduce the risk of returning to the disorder after treatment.
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Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)
Active: Engaging the client in their own treatment.
Directive: Therapist leads the session towards goals.
Time-limited: Structured sessions with a specific duration.
Structured: Organized format for therapy sessions.
Problem-Oriented: Focus on specific issues affecting the client.
Guided Discovery: Helping clients explore their thoughts and behaviors.
Skills-Based: Teaching clients practical skills for managing symptoms.
Therapeutic Collaboration: Partnership between therapist and client.
130
Formulation
Collaborative understanding of the client’s problems and treatment rationale.
131
Behaviour Analysis
Examining operant and classical conditioning's role in the disorder.
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Behavioural Activation
Breaking patterns of avoidance to improve mood and reduce anxiety.
133
Cognitive Restructuring
Challenging the validity of negative thoughts and beliefs.
134
Exposure & Response Prevention
Facing avoided emotions without engaging in avoidance behaviors.
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Presenting Problems
The specific issues or symptoms the client is currently experiencing that prompt them to seek help.
136
Predisposing Factors
Factors that make a person more susceptible to developing a disorder (e.g., genetics, early childhood experiences, personality traits).
137
Precipitating Events
Specific events or stressors that trigger the onset of symptoms or exacerbate existing problems (e.g., trauma, loss, significant life changes).
138
Perpetuating Factors
Ongoing influences that maintain or worsen the disorder (e.g., negative thought patterns, lack of social support, avoidance behaviors).
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Protective Factors
Resources and strengths that help mitigate the effects of stressors and promote resilience (e.g., supportive relationships, coping skills, access to therapy)
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Graded Exposure
Definition: A therapeutic technique where a client gradually confronts feared situations or stimuli in a controlled and systematic way, starting with less anxiety-provoking scenarios and progressing to more challenging ones.
Purpose: To reduce fear and anxiety by increasing the client’s comfort level with the feared object or situation over time.
141
Behavioral Activation
Definition: A CBT technique that encourages clients to engage in activities that they find enjoyable or meaningful to counteract feelings of depression and low motivation.
Purpose: To increase positive reinforcement in a client's life, improve mood, and break the cycle of avoidance and inactivity.
142
Cognitive Restructuring
Definition: A technique that involves identifying and challenging negative thought patterns and cognitive distortions, replacing them with more balanced and realistic thoughts.
Purpose: To alter maladaptive beliefs and improve emotional responses, leading to healthier behaviors and coping strategies.
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Behavioral Experiments
Definition: An approach used in CBT where clients test the validity of their beliefs through real-life experiments, often designed to challenge fears or misconceptions.
Purpose: To provide evidence that helps clients re-evaluate and change their thought patterns, often leading to reduced anxiety and improved behavior.
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Exposure & Response Prevention (ERP)
Definition: A specialized technique for treating obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) that involves exposing clients to their feared thoughts, images, and situations while preventing the accompanying compulsive responses.
Purpose: To help clients learn that their anxiety will decrease over time without engaging in compulsions, thereby reducing the power of their obsessions.
145
Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT)
A type of cognitive-behavioral therapy developed to treat borderline personality disorder (BPD) and emotional dysregulation, focusing on teaching skills in mindfulness, distress tolerance, emotion regulation, and interpersonal effectiveness.
Core Concepts:
Dialectics: Balancing acceptance and change.
Mindfulness: Focusing on the present moment and accepting it without judgment.
Skills Training: Teaching clients specific skills to manage emotions and improve relationships.
146
Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)
A form of therapy that uses acceptance and mindfulness strategies combined with commitment and behavior change strategies to increase psychological flexibility.
Core Concepts:
Acceptance: Embracing thoughts and feelings without trying to change them.
Cognitive Defusion: Distancing oneself from unhelpful thoughts.
Values Clarification: Identifying personal values and committing to actions that align with them.
147
Metacognitive Therapy (MCT)
A cognitive therapy that focuses on how individuals think about their thoughts (metacognition) and aims to change the processes involved in thinking rather than the content of thoughts themselves.
Core Concepts:
Cognitive Attentional Syndrome: A pattern of thinking that leads to excessive worry and rumination.
Metacognitive Awareness: Understanding and managing one's thinking processes.
Detached Mindfulness: Observing thoughts without becoming entangled in them.
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Mindfulness-Based Therapy
A therapeutic approach that incorporates mindfulness practices to help individuals become more aware of their thoughts and feelings in the present moment, often used for stress reduction and emotional regulation.
Core Concepts:
Mindfulness: Paying attention to the present moment non-judgmentally.
Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR): A structured program that teaches mindfulness meditation techniques.
Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT): Combines traditional cognitive therapy with mindfulness practices to prevent relapse in depression.
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First Wave CBT
Focus: Pathology-Focused
Description: Emphasizes understanding and treating mental disorders by addressing specific pathological behaviors and cognitive distortions. The goal is to identify and modify dysfunctional thoughts and behaviors to alleviate symptoms.
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Second Wave CBT
Focus: Problem-Focused
Description: Concentrates on solving specific problems and symptoms experienced by individuals. It involves structured interventions and techniques to help clients manage their issues effectively, often using cognitive restructuring and behavior modification strategies.
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Third Wave CBT
Focus: Competence-Focused
Description: Shifts the emphasis from pathology and problems to enhancing personal strengths and competencies. This wave incorporates mindfulness, acceptance, and values-based living to foster psychological flexibility and resilience, encouraging clients to engage fully in their lives despite challenges.
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What is the role of the Conscious mind according to Freud's structural model of the psyche?
The Conscious mind is responsible for thoughts and perceptions.
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What is stored in the Preconscious mind?
The Preconscious mind stores memories and knowledge that are accessible but not currently in awareness.
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What does the Unconscious mind contain?
The Unconscious mind contains fears, instincts, motives, and is strongly influenced by childhood experiences.
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What is the function of the Id in Freud's model of the psyche?
The Id operates based on basic impulses (such as sex, aggression, hunger, and safety) and follows the pleasure principle.
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What is the primary role of the Ego in the psyche?
The Ego mediates between the impulses of the Id and the inhibitions of the Superego, working to resolve conflicts.
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What are the ideals and morals governed by in Freud's structural model?
Ideals and morals are governed by the Superego, which acts as the conscience.
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How do conflicts arise in Freud’s model of the mind?
Conflicts arise when the Ego mediates between the impulsive desires of the Id and the moral constraints of the Superego.
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Which principle does the Id follow according to Freud’s theory?
The Id follows the pleasure principle.
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How does childhood experience influence the mind, according to this model?
Childhood experiences significantly shape the unconscious mind, affecting fears, instincts, and motives.
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Displacement
Definition: Redirecting emotions or impulses from the original source to a safer or more acceptable target.
Example: A person who is frustrated with their boss might come home and take out their anger on their family instead.
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Sublimation
Definition: Channeling unacceptable impulses or desires into socially acceptable activities.
Example: A person with aggressive urges may become involved in sports or physical exercise to express those feelings in a constructive way.
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Repression
Definition: Unconsciously blocking out or forgetting distressing thoughts, memories, or feelings.
Example: A person who has experienced trauma may have difficulty recalling the event or may act as if it never happened.
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Regression
Definition: Reverting to behaviors characteristic of an earlier developmental stage when faced with stress or anxiety.
Example: An adult throwing a temper tantrum when they don't get their way, similar to how a child might react.
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Key Concepts of Psychoanalysis & Psychodynamic Therapy
Unconscious Mind: Contains processes that the conscious mind cannot access.
Influence of Childhood: Genes and early experiences shape individual behavior.
Behavioral Causation: All behavior is caused, largely by unconscious factors.
Understanding Focus: Aims to gain insight into underlying issues rather than assuming skill deficits.
Duration: Can last years or be “brief” and goal-driven, typically around 25 sessions.
Importance of Relationship: The therapeutic relationship is crucial for understanding interactions with others.
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Defense Mechanisms
Unconscious strategies used to protect oneself from anxiety and to cope with reality.
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Analysis of Transference
Understanding how old patterns of interaction are transferred to the therapist and examining the therapist's countertransference.
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Interpretation
The therapist analyzes barriers or defense mechanisms that hinder change and understanding.
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Free Association
A technique where the client speaks freely to access unconscious thoughts and feelings, saying whatever comes to mind without censorship.
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Humanistic Therapies
Therapeutic approaches emphasizing personal growth, self-actualization, and a positive view of human nature.
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Key Concepts of Humanistic Therapies
Experiential: Focuses on the client's personal experiences.
Person at the Centre: Centers therapy around the individual.
Inside Perspective: Considers experiences from the client’s internal viewpoint.
Positive View of People: Believes in the inherent strength and potential of individuals.
Self-Development: Recognizes a natural tendency toward personal growth.
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Active Listening
A technique where the therapist creates a non-directive, non-judgmental, and accepting environment to facilitate client expression.
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Empathy in Humanistic Therapy
The therapist's ability to understand and share the feelings of the client, crucial for building a therapeutic relationship.
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Techniques in Humanistic Therapy
Self Help: Encourages clients to explore their thoughts and feelings in a safe environment, promoting self-discovery and personal insight.
Unconditional Positive Regard: The therapist provides acceptance and support regardless of what the client says or does, fostering a safe space for self-exploration.
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Systemic Therapies
Therapeutic approaches that focus on the dynamics and interactions within systems, particularly in family and couples therapy.
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Key Concepts of Systemic Therapies
Focus on Systems: Emphasizes understanding the interactions between individuals within a system.
Integration of Approaches: Can incorporate various therapeutic models, including specific ones like Family Therapy.
Identify Maladaptive Patterns: Aims to help clients recognize and address unhealthy behavior, emotional, and belief patterns.
Reset Imbalances: Works to restore balance in relationships through improved communication.
Create Shared Goals: Encourages collaborative goal-setting among system members.
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Techniques in Systemic Therapies
Establish Boundaries: Define roles within the system (e.g., parent/child, partners) to clarify expectations.
Shift Interaction Patterns: Change dysfunctional communication patterns
that hinder problem-solving.
Build Validation: Foster an environment where each member feels heard and understood.
Explore Motivations: Identify what drives each individual within the system to enhance understanding and cooperation.
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Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)
Traumatic events that occur during childhood (0-17 years) that can have lasting effects on health and well-being.
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Types of ACEs
Poverty/Hardship: Living in conditions of economic instability or material deprivation.
Abuse: Physical, emotional, or sexual abuse experienced during childhood.
Neglect: Lack of emotional or physical support from caregivers.
Loss of a Parent: Death or absence of a parent during childhood.
Divorce/Separation: Family breakup impacting a child's stability.
Exposure to Violence: Witnessing domestic violence or violence in the community.
Substance Abuse: Alcohol or drug use within the household.
Mental Illness: Presence of mental health issues in family members.
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Impact of ACEs
Increased Risk: As the number of ACEs increases, the likelihood of experiencing negative health and social outcomes also rises.
Mortality Risk: Individuals with 6 or more ACEs have a 20-year shorter life expectancy on average compared to those without ACEs.
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Long-term Effects of ACEs
Developmental Impact: Early negative experiences significantly influence future physical and mental health.
Mental Health Disorders: Higher risk for anxiety, depression, and other mental health issues in adulthood.
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Developing Capacity of the Child
Age Range: Birth to 3 years
Overview: Focuses on the developing abilities of young children in emotional and social contexts.
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Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
A developmental disorder characterized by persistent deficits in social communication and interaction, along with restricted or repetitive patterns of behavior.
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Deficits in Social Communication and Interaction
Non-Verbal Communication: Difficulty with non-verbal cues, such as lack of eye contact.
Relationship Development: Challenges in forming, maintaining, or understanding relationships with others.
Social-Emotional Reciprocity: Lack of response to social interactions, such as smiles or being called by name.
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Theory of Mind
Definition: The ability to understand that others have thoughts, beliefs, and intentions that differ from one's own.
ASD Implication: Individuals with ASD often interpret the world solely from their perspective, lacking this understanding
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Restricted and Repetitive Behaviors
Patterns of Behavior: Engaging in repetitive
movements (e.g., arm or hand flapping, rocking).
Rituals and Routines: Strong preference for maintaining order and following specific routines.
Fixated Interests: Intense focus on particular subjects or activities.
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Sensory Sensitivity in ASD
Definition: Individuals with ASD may exhibit either over-sensitivity or under-sensitivity to sensory inputs.
Examples:
Over-Sensitivity: Discomfort with loud sounds or certain textures.
Under-Sensitivity: May not react strongly to physical touch or may not mind being held.
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Language Development in ASD
Language Delays: Many individuals with ASD experience delayed language development.
Non-Verbal Communication: In some cases, individuals may be completely non-verbal.
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Impact on Daily Functioning
Everyday Functioning: Symptoms of ASD significantly affect daily life and functioning.
Intellectual Disability: The symptoms are distinct and not explained by the presence of intellectual disability.
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Diagnosis Age for ASD
Traditional Diagnosis Age: ASD is typically diagnosed around 2-3 years old due to symptoms related to language and social interaction.
Early Diagnosis: Recent research allows for diagnosis as early as 18 months.
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Gender Disparity in ASD
Gender Ratio: ASD is nearly five times more common in boys than in girls.
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Causes of ASD
Genetic Component: ASD has a significant genetic component.
Genome Variations: Variations in the human genome may indicate a predisposition to autism.
Brain Markers: Abnormalities, such as faster-than-normal brain growth, have also been observed in individuals with ASD.
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ADHD Overview
Disorder: Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
Symptoms: Two clusters of symptoms - inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity.
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Inattention Symptoms (Cluster 1)
Difficulty Paying Attention: Easily distracted, short attention span.
Losing Items: Frequently misplacing or losing things.
Not Listening: Appears not to be listening when spoken to.
Changing Activities: Constantly changing tasks or activities.
Task Completion: Problems completing tasks even when motivated.
Concentration Issues: Finds it very difficult to concentrate on tasks.
Organization Problems: Difficulty organizing tasks
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Hyperactivity-Impulsivity Symptoms (Cluster 2)
Physical Movement: Excessive squirming, fidgeting, restlessness, needs to run or climb.
Excessive Talking: Talks excessively.
Impulsiveness: Blurting out answers, interrupting, and unable to wait their turn.
Routine Struggles: Difficulty with routines, impatience.
Inability to Sit Still: Cannot remain still, especially in quiet settings.
Little Sense of Danger: Shows little or no awareness of danger.
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Impact of ADHD Symptoms
Significant Problems: Symptoms can lead to:
Underachievement at school.
Poor social interactions with peers and adults.
Discipline issues.
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Normal Behavior vs. ADHD
Normal Behavior: All/most children experience episodes of inattention, hyperactivity, or impulsiveness.
Controversy: Concerns exist that normal childhood disorderliness may be mislabelled as ADHD.
Maladaptive Behaviors: When behaviors become maladaptive (e.g., inability to control behavior or complete simple tasks), there may be cause for concern.
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Prevalence of ADHD
Statistics: 3-7% of school-age children are diagnosed with ADHD.
Gender Ratio: Once thought that males were at greater risk, with a ratio of 3:1.
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Persistence of ADHD Symptoms
Adolescence and Adulthood: Symptoms may continue into adolescence and adulthood for 50-70% of individuals.
Outcome: Many individuals overcome symptoms as they grow older.
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Causes of ADHD
Genetic Component: Strong evidence supports a genetic basis for ADHD.
Environmental Influences: New research indicates that parenting experiences also contribute to ADHD risk.
Factors: Families with poor socioeconomic status (SES) or high levels of conflict.
Birth Position: Oldest siblings in families lacking cohesion may be more prone to ADHD than younger siblings.
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Gender Differences in Depression
Girls are twice as likely as boys to experience depression during adolescence.
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Symptoms of Adolescent Depression
Similar to those in adults; however, sadness may often be masked by irritability.
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Prevalence of Anxiety Disorders
Anxiety disorders are among the most common psychological disorders in childhood, affecting 1 in 8 children.
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Gender Differences in Anxiety
Anxiety disorders are more common in girls than in boys.
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Nature of Anxiety Disorders
Anxiety disorders often have a chronic and fluctuating life course.
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Impact of Anxiety
Anxiety can negatively affect social, academic, and family functioning.
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Algorithm in Problem Solving
Definition: A step-by-step learned procedure that always provides the correct answer for a particular problem.
Application: Useful when a problem consistently relies on the same steps to reach a solution.
Note: If algorithms are unavailable, heuristics are often used instead.
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Heuristic
a “rule of thumb” or mental shortcut used to make solving problems or making decisions easier
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Availability Heuristics
Definition: Judgment based on information that is readily available in memory.
Strength: Often works well but can lead to errors.
Example: Are there more English words that start with "k" (e.g., kangaroo) or have "k" in the third position (e.g., duke)?
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Representativeness Heuristic
Definition: Estimating the likelihood of an event by comparing it to an existing prototype in our minds.
Example: Sarah invites you to a concert with two friends. You know one is a mathematician and the other is a musician. You might assume the musician is more likely to enjoy the concert, based on the prototype of what musicians are like.
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Clinical Implications of Heuristics
Use Them: Make decision-making tools vivid and accessible by using repetition and visual language.
Avoid Falling for Them: When making important decisions:
Pause and reflect on why you are deciding a certain way.
Ask: "Is my decision based on recent information or headlines?"
Seek additional data to support your decision.
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Distraction
Attention gets diverted from the task at hand by irrelevant information.
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Functional Fixedness
The tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use, limiting creative problem-solving.
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Mental Sets
Occur when people persist in using strategies that have worked in the past but are no longer optimal.
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Unnecessary Constraints
People often impose unnecessary limits on possible solutions.
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Confirmation Bias
The tendency for people to search for confirmation of what they already believe and ignore evidence that contradicts their beliefs.
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Framing Effect
Definition: A cognitive bias in which individuals make decisions based on how information is presented, or "framed," rather than solely on the facts.
Key Point: People react differently depending on whether a choice is presented as a gain or a loss.
People are more risk-averse when information is presented in a gain frame (i.e., they are hesitant to risk not gaining).
When the decision is framed to avoid a loss, people tend to be bolder in their decision-making.
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How to Avoid Framing Effect in Medical Decision-Making
Present Information Equally: Discuss risks and benefits of both treatment options with the same level of detail.
Use Neutral Language: Favor neutral terms (e.g., "effective" vs. "ineffective") over emotive language (e.g., "successful" vs. "failure").
Provide Written Information: Offer brochures or patient information sheets for reference.
Encourage Questions: Ask patients to explain their rationale for choosing a certain treatment option.
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Placebo Effect
Improvement in health and/or recovery from illness resulting from receiving a treatment, even if it is inactive.
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Placebo Response
Improvement that arises from the non-specific effects of the clinical context, combined with the placebo effect of receiving a treatment.
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Importance of Testing New Treatments Against Placebo
New treatments must be tested against a placebo to demonstrate their effectiveness beyond the placebo effect and the natural improvement that can occur due to clinical contexts.
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Expectations and Classical Conditioning in Placebo Effect
Mechanism: Placebos can produce effects based on patients' expectations, influenced by factors such as:
Verbal/written suggestions
Social learning
Patient-doctor interactions
Previous experiences
Treatment appearance
Relevant Outcomes: Particularly significant in pain relief.
Flow-On Effects:
Activation of the reward system, leading to dopamine/endorphin release.
Reduction in anxiety and perceived stress, causing physiological changes.
Attribution of recovery to the placebo.
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Open-Hidden Paradigm
Definition:
The open-hidden paradigm is a method used to test the placebo effect and the response to active medication.
Key Concepts:
Open Administration:
Patients are aware of when they will receive medication.
Typically results in a greater overall effect due to the patient's anticipation and expectation of treatment.
Hidden Administration:
Patients are unaware of when they will receive medication.
May result in a lesser effect compared to open administration.
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Factors Influencing Placebo Effect
Types of Treatment Factors:
Dose:
The amount and frequency of the treatment can enhance expectations and perceived effectiveness.
Price Information & Branding:
Higher-priced treatments are often perceived as more effective due to the assumption of higher quality.
Branding can create a strong expectation of efficacy based on the brand's reputation.
Newer Drugs:
Newer medications may generate more excitement and hope, increasing the placebo response.
Pill Colour:
The colour of the pill can influence perceptions; for example, red pills are often associated with stimulatory effects, while blue pills are associated with calming effects.
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Nocebo Effect
Nocebo Effect: Adverse consequences experienced from taking a placebo or active treatment, which are not caused by any component of the treatment itself.
Key Points:
Origin: The term "nocebo" comes from Latin, meaning "I will harm."
Mechanism: Symptoms may arise due to negative expectations or beliefs about the treatment rather than any pharmacological action.
Examples:
A patient experiencing side effects after being informed of potential adverse effects of a treatment.
Worsening symptoms attributed to the anticipation of negative outcomes rather than the treatment itself.
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Nocebo in hyperalgesia
Hyperalgesia: Increased sensitivity to pain, often in response to a stimulus that typically produces less pain.
Key Points:
Study Findings:
Participants undergoing an inert procedure who were informed it might produce or worsen pain reported increased levels of pain.
This suggests that expectations can significantly influence pain perception.
Neuroimaging Evidence:
fMRI studies indicate that inducing negative expectations of pain correlates with heightened neural activity in pain-related areas of the brain.
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Factors Increasing the Nocebo Effect
Key Factors:
Expectations:
Negative expectations regarding treatment can lead to the experience of adverse effects.
Describing/Framing Information:
The way information is presented (framed) can influence patients’ perceptions and expectations of treatment outcomes.
Emphasizing potential side effects may increase the likelihood of experiencing them
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Choice:
Providing patients with choices in treatment can lead to increased anxiety or worry, which may heighten the nocebo response.
Social Learning:
Observing others experiencing negative outcomes or hearing negative stories about treatments can shape individual expectations and beliefs, thereby increasing the nocebo effect.
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Costs of Nocebo Response to Active Treatment
Distress: Patients may experience increased psychological distress due to anticipated negative effects.
Adds to Burden of Illness: Nocebo effects can exacerbate existing health conditions, increasing the overall burden on the patient.
Increased Costs of Care: Additional medical consultations and interventions may be required to address nocebo effects.
Non-Adherence: Patients may be less likely to adhere to treatment regimens due to fear of side effects, impacting overall health outcomes.
Additional Medications: Physicians may prescribe additional drugs to manage nocebo-related side effects, increasing treatment complexity and costs.
