Social Inequalitues Flashcards
(128 cards)
1
Q
What is social stratification?
A
This is the way society is grouped into divisions based on age, gender, social class and ethnicity. This leads to social inequalities, poverty and exclusions in society.
2
Q
What are life chances?
A
This is the opportunities for obtaining material goods, healthcare, education, employment, services and cultural experiences within society. It links to living standards and the difference in access to resources.
3
Q
What is economic capital?
A
This is material wealth, money and property.
4
Q
What is cultural capital?
A
This are the different sets of tastes, preferences and linguistic competence passed down to children by their parents.
5
Q
What is social capital?
A
These are social networks and levels of trust in communities.
6
Q
What is human capital?
A
This is particular to jobs, skills, knowledge and educational qualities regarded as investment for future rewards and enables people to do certain jobs.
7
Q
What is the functionalist view on gender inequality?
A
They believe that social roles are based on biological differences and this helps society run smoothly. These differences lead to gender inequality. The female role is domesticity and the male role is dominant and economic.
8
Q
What did Parsons believe about gender inequality?
A
He believed that males have an instrumental role because they provide food, shelter and clothing for their family and this is dominant. Females have an expressive role because they provide warmth, emotion, they are caring and this is less dominant. This limits career choices for then. In childhood, the personality factory teaches these roles so they can integrate into society. The motherly is mainly responsible for this. In adulthood, couples rely on each other for emotional support. The form isolated nuclear families that hold these roles.
9
Q
What is the warm bath theory?
A
This is when females provide a caring and positive emotional environment for the males to rely on.
10
Q
Advantage of Parsons view on gender inequality. (1)
- Marxists
A
- Marxists support because they believe females provide support for their husbands so they can function at work. They believe that women are a safety valve.
11
Q
Disadvantage of Parsons view on gender inequality. (2)
- Leech
- Feminists
A
- Leech believes that the dark side of the family is ignored. This is domestic abuse or violence occurring because of the patriarchy in the home.
- Feminists that women have little recognition for the work they do at home and they receive no emotional support or enough pay. This leads to depression. There is also a burden of responsibility placed on them.
12
Q
What is the human capital theory?
A
Every individual may have different incomes to others in the same job and this depends on how much human capital the person has. Males tend to have more human capital because they have more opportunity to study, more experience in jobs, and are more work oriented. This creates inequalities for women because they prioritise the home and caring, lack commitment, abandon or interrupt their career to have children. This means that women have less experience or training, they are promoted less and less valued.
13
Q
Advantages of the human capital theory. (2)
- dual
- ceiling
A
- the Dual Labour Market by Weber supports this.
- the Glass Ceiling and Elevator by Desai supports this
14
Q
Disadvantage of the human capital theory. (1)
- crisis
A
- the Glass Cellar or Crisis of Masculinity suggests that men also experience inequalities in the workplace.
15
Q
What does the Marxist Engels believe about gender inequality?
A
The reason for women’s position in society is the ownership of property and development of the nuclear family. This leads to gender inequality and discrimination. The bourgeoisie and proletariat relationship is represented in a male and female relationship. Males gain control over women through money and resources and want to pass in their property and inheritance onto their legitimate children. Sexual dominance and enforced monogamy is also a way males dominate. This ensures they will have legitimate children and the males property is protected.
16
Q
Advantage of Engels view on gender inequality. (1)
- Parsons
A
- Parsons supports this because this is a responsibility the males have because of their important role in the nuclear family.
17
Q
Disadvantages of Engels view on gender inequality. (2)
- Radical
- Postmodernists
A
- Radical Feminists believe there is too much focus on economic factors as oppression by men in the home was the first for of gender inequality.
- Postmodernists believe this idea lacks temporal validity as in contemporary society there are stay at home dads and female breadwinners who have economic power.
18
Q
What do Marxist Feminists believe about gender inequality?
A
They believe that women are a reserve army of labour and safety valves.
19
Q
What is the Marxist Feminist theory about women as a reserve army of labour?
A
Women perform unpaid domestic labour in the home. This suggests that they are available as a reserve army of labour in the work force if businesses need them. The family are a central force for women’s oppressions. The bourgeoisie use women for work when they need them then send them back when they’re no longer needed. They then go back to being housewives. Women are the most affected by redundancy, low pay and low job security.
20
Q
Disadvantages of women as a reserve army for labour. (2)
- Crisis
- successful
A
- The Glass Cellar and the Crisis of Masculinity show men are disadvantaged too.
- women are more successful now and are in high positions like Theresa May who is our prime minister.
21
Q
What is the Marxist Feminist idea of women as a safety valve?
A
When men return home after being exploited at work for labour, they take their anger and frustrations out on their wives. Women absorb this and this helps reinforce their powerlessness and oppression in the home. The bosses feel secure if a man has a wife as he has an outlet for his tensions.
22
Q
Advantage of the Marxist Feminist idea of women as a safety valve. (1)
- Leech
A
- this idea is supported by Leech’s idea of the the dark side of the family. Men blame their job and money for their aggressive nature at home and this may turn into domestic violence in the home. He found that domestic violence tends to increase when the wife is pregnant because of the frustration from worries about finances.
23
Q
What does the Radical Feminist Millet believe about gender inequality?
A
They believe that patriarchy is the main source of female oppression and family plays a key aspect in this. Society is run by men who are disadvantaged and will not give up their power or control; this is reinforced by gender divisions. Collective efforts are made by men to dominate, control and exploit women. They acquire power due to biological factors and the idea that women cannot contribute to society. The introduction of the contraceptive pill suggests males no longer have power over that aspect. Men are prepared to defend power and may use violence against women. Domestic violence reflects patriarchy through patriarchal terrorism and women should go towards separatism and political lesbianism.
24
Q
What is patriarchal terrorism?
A
This is the idea that men use violence, threats and isolation because they feel her have a right to control their women.
25
What is separatism or patriarchal terrorism?
This is the idea that women should liberate the,sleeves and avoid sleeping with the enemy.
26
Advantage of Millets view in gender inequality. (1)
| - Leech
- This is supported by the study on the dark side of the family by Leech.
27
Disadvantages of Millets view on gender inequality. (2)
- class
- together
- class and ethnicity are ignored
- males and females can work together effectively and cooperatively and this can be seen through campaigns for gender inequality.
28
What is horizontal segregation?
This is the number of males and females there are across one occupation. This has an influence on younger people choosing careers. The explanation of this is the Human Capital theory.
29
What is vertical segregation?
This is idea of Male domination in high ranking jobs in both Male and female type occupations.
30
What is the glass ceiling theory by Desai?
This is the idea that there are invisible barriers keeping women from achieving power and success. They can see where they want to go in their careers but cannot break through the barriers.
31
What is the concrete ceiling theory?
This is the idea that inequality has worsened and it is even more difficult for women to reach high job positions.
32
What is the glass elevator?
This is the idea that men rise higher and faster in the career ladder. They have hidden advantages.
33
What are Weber ideas about gender inequality?
There are 3 dimensions of stratification; class, status and party. Status and party are the most applicable to gender inequality. Status provides social closure for women. Woman participate less in groups that exert power and pressure groups in society. They are less likely to be active in political parties or activist groups.
34
Advantage about the Weberian view of gender inequality. (1)
| - capital
- the human capital theory supports these ideas.
35
Disadvantages of the Weberian view of gender inequality. (2)
- Crisis
- Postmodernists
- the crisis of masculinity and glass cellar theory suggest that men are disadvantaged too
- Postmodernists suggests that women can pick and choose in contemporary society. Women are politically active and get involved like Theresa May and Angela Merkel.
36
What is the dual labour market by Barron and Norris?
This suggests that there is the primary and secondary sector labour market in the workplace. The primary sector labour market includes secure, well paid jobs with high chances of promotion and are mainly occupied by males. The secondary labour market involves low security, low paid jobs with zero contract hours and a low chance of promotion. These are usually occupied by females and they have low status because the role of a housewife or mother has low status and little power.
37
Advantages of the dual labour market by Barron and Norris. (2)
- Marxists
- reserve
- Marxists would suggest that those in the primary sector are bourgeoisie and those in the secondary are proletariats.
- Marxist Feminists would support this as women are probably in the secondary sector because they are a reserve army for labour.
38
What does the New Right theorist Redwood believe about gender inequality?
He suggests that the nuclear family is a natural institution that is important and social change threatens traditional norms and values. Examples are sexual permissiveness, homosexuality, cohabitation, unmarried mothers, high divorce rates and single parent families. The decline in marriage rates in weakening, cohabiting leads to these people not marrying and becoming less stable, and 91% of single parent families are headed by females. So more women end up working outside of the home so people need to return back traditional family roles.
39
Advantages of Redwoods views on gender inequality. (1)
| - Functionalists
- Functionalists and Right Realists would support the idea of keeping traditional nuclear families for social, economic and political factors.
40
Disadvantages of Redwoods views on gender inequality. (2)
- Feminists
- victims
- Marxists and Feminists would suggest that new modern families are different but they aren’t inferior to traditional nuclear families.
- this theory blames victims of society.
41
What does Murray suggest about gender inequality?
The inadequate socialisation of the underclass leads them to have lazy and criminal tendencies. The over generous welfare system leads to immoral and criminal behaviour. Single mothers raise young boys with no fathers or male role models and they end up having poor impulse control. This may lead to them becoming sexual predators and not being able to keep jobs. Illegitimacy is the greatest predictor of criminality. Girls without fathers are emotionally damaged and search for father substitutes or get pregnant early. Low IQ is an predictor for poverty, raises chances being a school drop out, unemployment, divorce, illegitimate births, increased welfare dependency and committing crime.
42
Advantage of Murray’s views on gender inequality. (1)
| - Functionalists
- Functionalists and Right Realists would support because they believe that socialisation is important.
43
Disadvantages of Murray’s views on gender inequality. (2)
- Marxist
- Feminists
- Marxists world say this theory ignores exploitation, which should be a key focus.
- Feminists would suggests that there are many reasons why women become single mothers and some of them are bad so they are victims of society that are being blamed.
44
What is the functionalist view on social class inequality?
They believe that successfully run businesses create wealth and jobs , which contributes to a smooth running society. The working class has shrunk because they are in the workforce now, they have class consciousness now and they are more integrated into other social classes.
45
What is the dual labour market theory by Giddens?
This suggests that the primary sector is jobs with high and stable economic returns and chance of career mobility as they possess eduction. The middle class tend to hold these jobs. The secondary sector labour market has the least desirable and most insecure jobs. These have low rates of condominium return, poor job security,p and low chances of career advancement. The working class, underclass and skilled labourers possess these jobs, as well as women and ethnic minorities. Women experience this through part time jobs and ethnic minorities through discrimination.
46
Advantages of the dual labour market by Giddens. (1)
| - gender
- there is a link to gender and ethnicity
47
Disadvantages of the dual labour market by Giddens.
- Crisis
- Cellar
- the crisis of masculinity suggest that men experience disadvantages too
- the glass cellar suggests this too.
48
What are the principles of social stratification by Davis and Moore?
This ensures that there is effective role allocation and performance and has two purposes. The first is to allocate the right people to the most important roles and ensure they are filled by the most able. These people receive high rewards, income and status. The second reason is to ensure the people in these top jobs perform these roles to high standards as they have people depending on them that trust them. They must have functional uniqueness and there should be a degree of dependency from others.
49
What is functional uniqueness?
This is the idea that a job is important if only one person or a small group can perform the role.
50
What is degree of dependency of others?
This is that a job is important if many people depend on the person to perform the job effectively.
51
Disadvantages of the principle of social stratification by Davis and Moore. (3)
- importance
- small
- monetary
- it is not possible to determine the functional importance of a job. Footballers have little functional importance but still get paid too much. For example Ronaldo is worth $108 million.
- this theory suggests only a small number of people can perform roles
- this theory focuses on monetary rewards when there are people who do jobs for altruistic reasons like nurses or teachers.
52
What does Karl Marx believe about social class inequality?
The bourgeoisie and proletariat depend on each other as workers create wealth for the bourgeoisie as they are exploited with low wages. Smaller businesses are driven out by bigger businesses. Workers are used as commodities and are distracted by being driven to buy consumer goods and be materialistic. There is the potential to over throw capitalism through a revolution. The capitalist ideology justifies exploitation through the education system, religion and the media. Communism would replace capitalism.
53
How would communism replace capitalism?
The means of production would be owned and shared by all and everyone would contribute to society based on their abilities. No one receives wages, they would receive basic necessities like food, accommodation and health care. Inequalities would disappear and society would be classless.
54
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Advantage of Karl Marx’s theories about social class inequality. (1)
- enjoy
```
- in Western countries, the working class enjoy living standards and the access to wider consumer goods. Also capitalism allows everyone to elect their own government and they enjoy political freedom and human rights.
55
What is the bourgeoisie?
This is the wealthy, upper middle and upper class who own the means to production.
56
What is the proletariat?
These are the lower classes, they are poor or on benefits, they are exploited and are the workers.
57
Disadvantages of Karl Marx’s theories about social class inequality. (2)
- communism
- between
- communism may not be the answer as their are many countries where communism has fallen
- the classes between the bourgeoisie and the proletariats is ignored.
58
What are the Neo Marxist theories by Gramsci about social class inequality?
This is the idea that hegemony in society uses cultural and political ways to encourage the working class to be brainwashed. This is ensures stability through institutions like religion, the media and education. Hegemony is never fully achieved because the working class are aware of the inequalities but do little to change it. They need to use their intelligence to build awareness and create greater class consciousness. This will lead to a revolution.
59
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Advantage of Neo Marxist theories by Gramsci about social class inequality. (1)
- socialisation
```
- there is a link to secondary socialisation. The bourgeoisie use these to reinforce the capitalist ideology in children and make sure the grow up brainwashed.
60
Disadvantages of Neo Marxist theories by Gramsci about social class inequality. (2)
- brainwashed
- gender
- not all the working class are brainwashed as there are being in trade unions who fight against this.
- gender inequality is ignored and this is ignored in society. Postmodernist Feminists would highlight this is important in contemporary society. They gender pay gap supports this.
61
What does the Feminist Mirza suggest about social class inequality?
Black women are marginalised and oppressed in society. She conducted a longitudinal study and a school based ethnographic study on 62 working class women aged 15-19. They compared them to their black and white male and female peers. These people were from 2 schools in London and then it was followed up in the workplace.
62
What did Mirza find in her study on social class inequality?
The black women were the highest achieving in both schools and the black males were the lowest. The black females didn’t accept poor racist attitudes from their teachers. They challenged the teachers low academic expectations of them and they wanted to do well, succeed and progress. They wanted to improve their chances of social mobility and future chances.
63
Advantages of the study by Mirza on social class inequality. (2)
- longitudinal
- ethnographic
- it is a longitudinal study so patterns and trends can be identified over time.
- it is also an ethnographic study so we can learn about new cultures and we can gain a better understanding of human behaviours.
64
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Disadvantages of the study by Mirza on social class inequality. (1)
- classes
```
- other classes are ignored that also experience social class inequality like the underclass.
65
What is the feminisation of poverty theory?
This is the idea that single mother households with female head ships contribute to the feminisation of poverty. The lack of resources and income they have means they have the highest risk of poverty. Their children are disadvantaged. They have the opportunity to work but they don’t get better jobs and are left with those that don’t offer financial stability or benefits. The don’t have access to opportunities to attain a decent standard of living and basic needs. They lack essential life needs. It has been found that rates of depression are significantly lower if stable, long term jobs are held.
66
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Advantage of the feminisation of poverty theory about social class inequality. (1)
- gender
```
- this theory links gender to social class inequalities
67
Disadvantages of the feminisation of poverty about social class inequality. (2)
- Murray
- middle
- Murray would suggest that these women end up being dependent of welfare state
- also this theory ignores the fact that the middle class can be poverty stricken too.
68
What is Weber’s ideas about social class inequality?
He believes that there is a basic economic division between owners of the means of production and labourers but there are more than two social classes. They are:
- the propertied upper class
- the propertyless white collar working class
- the petty bourgeoisie
- the manual workers.
There are layers to social class in terms of skills and power e.g a road sweeper and mechanic share the same social class but enjoy different benefits.
69
What is social class?
This is a group who share similar market situations. They receive similar economic rewards and share life chances.
70
How does status relate to social class inequality in the Weberian theory?
Social class is linked to wealth and income. This depends on the respect that is gained from others, which influences how people perceive themselves. This may be as inferior or superior to others. It links to aristocracy and the nouveaux riche. It can affected by religion, ethnicity and lifestyle.
71
How does party relate to social inequality in Weberian theories?
This is exercising power and decision making in society. Trade unions aim to improve wages and working conditions. Pressure groups unite these social classes.
72
Advantages of Weberian theories about social class inequalities. (2)
- Marxist
- links
- Marxists would support the idea that there are basic economic divisions in society between the owners of the means to production and labourers.
- this theory links social class inequality to class, status and party, as well as to ethnicity.
73
Disadvantages of Weberian theories about social class inequalities. (2)
- Marxists
- Postmodernists
- Marxists disagree with the idea that there are more than two social groups, they believe there are only the bourgeoisie and the proletariats.
- Postmodernists believe status is not important anymore as people have the ability to pick and choose consumer goods and this means that people can fake what social class they belong to.
74
What is social stratification by the New Right theorist Saunders?
This is the idea that social inequality is needed in society and it is only possible with force. It is caused by economic growth that raises living standards, which is why wages haven’t increased. The capitalist society offers incentives to those with talents with wealth and income. He favours that there should be legal equality for all in the opportunity to compete. He rejects the idea that everyone should be rewarded in the same way. Social inequality is desirable and functional to motivate people to compete to gain rewards. He believes the middle class deserve to do better because they’re more intelligent.
75
Advantage of the social stratification by Saunders to explain social inequalities. (1)
- Davis
- this is supported by the Functionalists Davis and Moore and the idea of allocating roles because they believe that society should offer incentives of wealth and income to those with talents.
76
Disadvantages of social stratification by Saunders. (2)
- Left
- Interactionist
- Left Wing Realists would disagree with the idea that people should receive that same rewards as they believe that society should be equal.
- Interactionists would disagree with the idea of labelling the working class as not intelligent.
77
What is the Host: Immigration model by the Functionalist Patterson?
Britain was a stable, homogenous and orderly society with a high degree of consensus over norms and values. This was disrupted by the arrival of immigrants in the 1950s who has different norms and values. This causes culture clashed; West Indians were noisy and the host valued privacy and keeping to oneself. They were not racist they were just unsure how to act. The three causes of ethnic inequality are that the host feared cultural differences and social change, there was a resentment and unwillingness to compete for resources and the failure of the immigrants to assimilate. They continued to practice their native norms and values in a public domain which caused hostility. However eventually they will move towards full cultural assimilation by adopting a new British identity.
78
Disadvantages of the host immigration model by Patternson on the reasons for ethnic inequality. (3)
- Postmodernists
- Marxist
- excuse
- Postmodernists suggest that is naive to assume all ethnic groups will assimilate. Britain is multicultural where diversity is celebrated so this theory is outdated
- Marxists suggest that this ignore social class inequality. This goal cannot be reached under a capitalist society.
- this theory uses being unsure how to act as an excuse for racism
79
What is the Functionalist view of ethnic inequality?
They believe ethnic inequality and differences are temporary and based on cultural differences between the host country and immigrants. The maintenance of social order and collective solidarity is ensured through the fact that minority groups slowly adapt to the majority culture because they assimilate. This is a positive outcome of racial and ethnic inequality and a means of preventing anomie.
80
What is assimilation?
This is when a groups decides to give up its own cultural values and adopt the host culture.
81
What is the ethnic minority women in the job market by Vikram Dodd?
This was an article which explored this topic. Many Muslim women remove their hijabs or make their names sound more English to beat discrimination and to increase their chances of getting work. Employers attitudes worsened when they realised women with European spending name were actually black. Black and Asian women were asked about their plans for marriage and children in job interviews. They deselect themselves from the job marker and decide not to apply because of the extra barriers. The unemployment rate of Pakistani and Bangladeshi women remains consistently and substantially higher.
82
Advantages of the ethnic minority women in job market by Dodd to explain ethnic inequality. (2)
- ceiling
- dual
- the glass ceiling theory by Desai and the concrete ceiling support this idea.
- the dual labour market about ethnicity by Barron and Norris support this theory.
83
Disadvantage of ethnic minority women in the workplace by Dodd to explain ethnic inequality. (1)
- Marxists
- Marxists would say that social class inequality is ignored and its important as seen in the dual labour market theory by Giddens.
84
What does the Marxist Cox believe about ethnic inequality?
He believes that the idea of race is a human creation and racism was created by the exploiters against the exploited. The origin of the development of capitalism comes from colonialism. European countries conquered other areas and they exploited the workforce there. They justified these actions using racism, claiming that the white Europeans are superior to other races. It’s not only white people who are racist but they developed capitalism so they first developed racism. If there was no capitalism there would have been no experiences of racial prejudice.
85
Advantage of Coxs views on ethnic inequality. (1)
| - economic
- this caused high economic imperatives of migration for the capitalist class.
86
Disadvantages of Coxs views about ethnic inequality. (2)
- simplistic
- blind
- this idea is simplistic because it’s difficult to prove racism is a capitalist ideology. It may benefit capitalism in the long term but there is no evidence that it is an apparatus used to ensure that this ideology remains
- this theory is race blind because it doesn’t address racism as a problem itself. It is too preoccupied with linking it to economic ideas.
87
What do the Marxists Castles and Kosovo believe about ethnic inequality?
This is the idea that most immigrant workers in Britain are concentrated in low skilled and low paid manual jobs or may even be unemployed. They experience poor working condition. This comes from the idea that they are a reserve army for labour. This keeps wages down and ensures a weaker bargaining position of existing workers. This reserve army is needed to be available to hire and fire as fluctuating fortunes economy has periods of boom and slump. After WW2 the capitalist society exhausted their indigenous reserve army of women so European countries turned to immigrants as they are a necessary chela pool of workers that are easily exploited. The white people then became the top layer of the working class and the immigrants became the lowest. The white peoples had used the divide and rule tactic.
88
What is the divide and rule tactic?
This is the idea that low wages were suppressed overall for the working class and immigrants so they were scapegoated. This diverted the white working class’ attention for. The true cause which is capitalism. This leads to unemployment and housing shortages, which means that the working class became even more divided and are unable to unite and overthrow capitalism.
89
Advantages of Castles and Kosacks view on ethnic inequality. (2)
- dual
- colonialism
- the dual labour market for ethnicity by Barron and Norris supports this.
- this links to other Marxist theories about gender and colonialism.
90
Disadvantage of Castles and Kosacks view on ethnic inequality. (1)
- Gopi
- there are some successful people in the upper classes like Gopi Hinduja who was Britain’s wealthiest man in 2014 and he is Indian.
91
What does the Feminist Connell believe about ethnic inequality?
This links to black feminism and post colonial feminism. In postcolonialism comes from inequalities caused by colonialism in developing contrived in Asia, Africa and Latin America. These gender inequalities are embedded in current attitudes towards race, ethnicity and gender. It is wrong to base theories about gender inequality on minority women in the world like those in the UK. This theory stresses the importance of developing feminist perspectives that challenges the dominance of Western Feminism as the majority of women live in the southern continents.
92
Advantage of Cornell’s view on ethnic inequality. (1)
| - Cox
- the Marxist Cox also believed that colonialism is the cause of inequality in society.
93
Disadvantages of Connells view on ethnic inequality. (2)
- colonialism
- Western
- there is an overemphasis on colonialism and not actual gender differences so Postmodernists believe it is outdated.
- women in Western countries can be disadvantaged too e.g through the gender pay gap.
94
What is the dual market theory by Barron and Norris to explain ethnic inequality?
This suggests that employers have stereotypical beliefs about ethnic minorities that are non favourable and racist. The primary sector includes secure, well paid jobs with a high chance of promotion and these are occupied by white males. The secondary sector involves jobs with low security, low pay, zero contract hours and a poor chance of promotion. These are usually occupied by ethnic minorities. This related to status as there is cultural discrimination. Employers hold racist or stereotypical views about ethnic minorities and don’t employ them or deny them of any responsibility. Legal and political frameworks protecting Black and Asian people are weak. Trade unions are dominated by white people who are less interested in protecting the right of Black people.
95
Advantage of the dual labour market theory by Barron and Norris to explain ethnic inequality. (1)
- Giddens
- this is supported by the Functionalist Giddens and his theory about the dual labour market.
96
Disadvantages of the dual labour marker by Barron and Norris to explain ethnic inequalities. (2)
- gender
- Lakshmi
- further differences have to be acknowledged too like gender and social class.
- there are ethnic minorities in the primary sector like Lakshmi Mittal who is worth $20.4 billion and was on Britain’s 100 Rich List.
97
What is the study by the Weberian theorists Rex and Tomlinson on ethnic inequality?
They conducted a study in Handsworth, Birmingham and studied that material disadvantages experienced by ethnic minorities that cut them off from the working class. They formed a separate underclass beneath the white working class. They experienced great disadvantage in the labour market, housing and education and lots of hostility from the white members of society. The black underclass were marginalised, alienated and frustrated. Their status inequality worsened, they were excluded from standards of living others took for granted and they were stereotyped by the police because of city riots. The underclass, who’s are mainly ethnic minorities are the ultimate victims.
98
Advantages of the Rex and Tomlinson study on ethnic inequalities. (2)
- Marxists
- Murray
- Marxists would support this study because links to social class inequality too.
- this supports the study by Murray on the underclass.
99
Disadvantages of the study by Rex and Tomlinson on ethnic inequality. (1)
- passive
- this suggests that ethnic minorities are passive victims in society but they aren’t. There are BAME campaigns and organisations.
100
What is the study by the New Right theorist Sewell that links to ethnic inequalities?
He studied Afro Caribbean boys aged 11-16 in a comprehensive schools in the UK. Many were raised by lone mothers and lacked fathers because they were rejected by them. They were twice as likely to have single parent families headed by females than their white peers. They were vulnerable to peer pressure and were part of gangs or anti school subcultures. They displayed macho forms of masculinity and wanted respect and ignored authority figures (the police and teachers). This black masculinity and vulnerability was their comfort zone. Their qualifications were worthless because of the racist society. They were confrontational and challenging in classrooms.
101
Advantages of the study by Sewell about ethnic inequality. (2)
- Feminists
- Interactionist
- Black Feminists would support that this study raises awareness of racism and issues on ethnicity.
- Interactionists would support this as it links to black street culture leading to a deviancy amplification and moral panics.
102
Disadvantages of the study by Sewell on ethnic inequalities. (2)
- Feminists
- blames
- Feminists would say that women are ignored
| - the individuals who are the victims are blamed in this study when institutional racism should be blamed.
103
What is the theory by the Marxist Vincent on age inequality?
Age inequality is not experienced the same in all societies. It is the most severe in those that focus on the private property. Capitalism places restrictions in age for people who can work. The elderly have low status because they don’t work and are seen as a burden. The youth are a cheap pool of labour as they can be paid with lower wages because they do not have experience. There is also competition between them for jobs which ensures low wages are maintained. These age restrictions have been placed to create a reserve army for labour. There are concerns over the ageing population. Moral panics about this are created to distract society from the main problem which is the unequal wealth distribution, but there are no problems of the ageing population. The elderly are economically unattractive and they have limited disposable income to spend on consumer goods so they are ignored. Elderly women are more likely to be poor.
104
Advantages on Vincent’s view on age inequality. (2)
- Interactionists
- Feminists
- Interactionists would support because it links to the idea of moral panics
- Feminists would support as women are acknowledged.
105
Disadvantage of Vincent’s views on age inequality. (1)
| - retirement
- some people choose to take an early retirement and it is their decision so free will is ignored.
106
What are the Marxist views on age inequality?
They believe the young are an asset to the needs of capitalism. They provide energy and a new skill like technological skill. If they lack skill then they become cheap labour as they are paid minimum wage. The elderly provide free childcare which means the young are able to work but they are still a reserve army of labour.
107
What is the political economy theory?
Age inequality meets the needs of capitalism and the economy as the elderly are put in a negative position because they are seen as burdens. Capitalism renews the workforce by using young workers and ensures greater profits. The young are more productive and the elderly are institutionally marginalised. They are made to retire young to the younger workers can replace them. This creates forced dependency which is the idea that the elderly are dependent on society and the people who own the means of production as they can’t work.
108
Advantage of the political economy theory. (1)
| - both
- both the youth and the elderly are addressed
109
Disadvantages of the political economy theory. (2)
- class
- grey
- it ignores class, gender, ethnicity, nationality, wealth and disability. They elderly can still work if they want to too.
- the grey pound is ignored which suggests that the elderly can be consumers too.
110
What do Functionalists believe about age inequality?
They suggest that inequality is the fault of the victim. The elderly and the young are victims don’t have skills so they are less valued. Having less skills means they are paid less.
111
What does Parsons believe about age inequality?
He believes that childhood is when people are socialised into norms and values and each age plays a different role. Boys and girls are taught their expected role. Girls should be mothers and housewives and boys should be the breadwinners. Adolescence is the development of independence from parents, which is necessary for workers to travel to places, and a bridge between childhood and adulthood. The youth focus on physical attractiveness, which is necessary to attract marriage partners and when loyalties are shifted form parents to their partners. When men retire, children grow and the elderly lose their important social roles. They become isolated from their own children and have shifted their loyalties from their partners to their children. The elderly become disengaged and are on the sidelines.
112
Disadvantages of Parsons views on age inequality. (3)
- Postmodernists
- Feminists
- Conflict
- Postmodernists would say that age differences are breaking down and the elderly are retiring late or becoming silver surfers.
- Feminists would say that women can be breadwinners too and there are stay at home dads.
- conflict theorists would say that conflict and exploitation is ignored. There are power struggles between parents and their adolescent children. There is also the sandwich generation.
113
What is the sandwich generation?
This is when middle aged women care for their children and elderly family members and this causes stress and pressure.
114
What is the disengagement theory by the Marxist Cummings to explain age inequality?
The old are actively removing themselves from previous roles so the new generation can take over. Death is inevitable for everyone so they start to disengage. They slowly start to reduce their role and manage their instability. Retirement age is a guide to when.
115
Disadvantages of the disengagement theory by Cummings. (3)
- inequalities
- gender
- White
- it ignores the inequalities of this which is reduced life chances and social inequality if there is no pension e.g women work less. There is too much focus on conformity and consensus.
- gender, ethnicity and social class inequalities are ignored.
- these theories were developed by white, middle class males who studied their own communities. So there is bias and it is unrepresentative.
116
What is the theory by Feminists Arber and Ginn on age inequality?
Age affects power and status. Elder women are seen as stupid, unhealthy, unattractive and dependent. Sexism and ageism combine to make life even harder for them. Women live longer and are unlikely to have a partner to care for them. They are more likely to live in poverty because they are unlikely to have a full pension.
117
Advantage of Arber and Gibbs views on age inequality. (1)
| - Radical
- Radical Feminists support the idea that women have less pensions because they believe men want to control women and make them bare children so they don’t work.
118
Disadvantages of Arber and Ginns views on age inequality. (2)
- ethnicity
- homogeneity
- social class and ethnicity are ignored when men in the underclass and ethnic minority groups have less pension too.
- the lack of homogeneity is also ignored as elder women can be successful too e.g Theresa May.
119
What do the Feminists Itzin and Daly believe about age inequality?
They believe that women face double standards. Men’s status is linked to employment and women’s is linked to their reproductive value. Women’s status devalues after child bearing age so as they grow older. So older women fight signs of ageing through cosmeticism, which is when they are encouraged to improve their appearance. This is capitalised by many industries. Ageing men don’t have the same pressures. Daly suggested that there many global practices that women are made to comply like genetic mutilation which is a double standard.
120
Advantage of Itzin and Dalys views on age inequality. (1)
| - Marxists
- Marxists would agree that cosmeticism is a negative aspect of society because it is used by the bourgeoisie to distract the proletariats from exploitation.
121
Disadvantages of Itzin and Dalys views on age inequality. (2)
- males
- will
- this idea ignores the fact that some men do go through the same pressures to cosmeticise to through magazines that encourage youth.
- it ignores the idea that cosmeticism is a choice so it ignores free will.
122
What is the negatively privileged groups their on age inequality?
This is the idea that some people suffer in negatively privileged status groups. The elderly are kept out of high status groups because of social segregation. In media this is done through invisibility from positive portrayal or the idea that the elderly ruin the image. In employment this is done through retirement and the elderly become dependent on family members and then become a burden. In living arrangements this is done in care homes where the elderly may be exploited or abused and are seen as weaker.
123
Advantages of the negatively privileged status groups theory about age inequality. (2)
- Marxists
- ethnicity
- Marxists would agree that the elderly are exploited by this in higher status groups like the bourgeoisie and thus causes social segregation.
- this links to ethnicity as ethnic minorities are also negatively privileged status groups.
124
Disadvantage of the negatively privileged status groups theory about age inequality. (1)
- homogeneity
- this theory ignores the lack of homogeneity as there are some people who do not retire at retirement age.
125
What are the Weberian views on age inequality?
The believe that the importance of a persons market position can be used to explain the low status of the young and the elderly. They have no skill so they have no status e.g the elderly have no technological skills. The elderly who are of the upper class don’t experience low status because their financial stability ensures that they will live a comfortable life regardless of their skill, like the Queen.
126
What is the activity theory by the Weberian theorist Havinghurst about age inequality?
This looks at what happens when social norms withdraw social interaction from individuals. Maintaining social interactions reduces the negative experiences of ageing. Grandparents providing childcare ensures continued social interactions. This may change inequality for the isolated elderly.
127
Advantage of the activity theory by Havinghurst about age inequality. (1)
- Interactionist
- Interactionist would support the this as it links to their ideas of well being and happiness.
128
Disadvantages of the activity theory by Havinghurst about age inequality. (2)
- happiness
- Disengagement
- there is too much focus on social interaction and happiness and not enough on age inequality. Anyone can have negative experiences from a lack of social interactions so it is not specific to age.
- the Disengagement theory doesn’t support this as it suggests that the elderly detach themselves from society and don’t form interactions.
