social influence

Question 1

Give two strengths for the different types of conformity

Answer 1

Research from Schulz found that hotel guests reduced towel usage by 25% when they were told that the majority of the guests reuse their towels. Therefore the theory is credible because it has a study backing it up.(Strength of normative social influence)
There is also evidence to support the role of informational social influence. For example, Lucas et al found that conformity to an obviously incorrect maths answer was greater when the question was more difficult and the participant rated their own maths ability unfavourably. This shows that individuals are more likely to turn to others when they lack the information to make their own informed decisions i.e. in an ambiguous situation.

Question 2

Give a weakness for the different types of conformity

Answer 2

Weakness: The supporting research (Lucas et al 2006) can be criticised for age bias as it was only conducted on students. Perhaps adults may conform more or less therefore we can’t generalise findings to the wider population

Question 3

Give two strengths of Ash’s study into variables affecting conforming

Answer 3

Supports normative social influence - participants reported that they conformed to fit in with the group, so it supports the idea of normative influence, which states that people conform to fit in when privately disagreeing with the majority.
Lab experiment - Extraneous and confounding variables are strictly controlled (high internal validity- ppts did experiment without confederates), meaning that replication of the experiment is easy. Successful replication increases the reliability of the findings because it reduces the likelihood that the observed findings were a ‘one-off’.

Question 4

Give two strengths of Zimbardo’s study on conformity to social roles

Answer 4

Debriefing – participants were fully and completely debriefed about the aims and results of the study. This is particularly important when considering that the BPS ethical guidelines of deception and informed consent had been breached. Dealing with ethical issues in this way simply makes the study more ethically acceptable, but does not change the quality (in terms of validity and reliability) of the findings.
The amount of ethical issues with the study led to the formal recognition or ethical guidelines so that future studies were safer and less harmful to participants due to legally bound rules. This demonstrates the practical application of an increased understanding of the mechanisms of conformity and the variables which affect this.

Question 5

Give two weaknesses of Ash’s study into variables affecting conforming

Answer 5

Lacks ecological validity (Mundane realism) - it was based on peoples’ perception of lines and so the findings cannot be generalised to real life as it does not reflect the complexity of real life conformity i.e. where there are many other confounding variables and majorities exert influence irrespective of being a large group. Also as it was a lab study with a manipulated IV.
Lacks population validity due to sampling issues - For example, the participants were only American male undergraduates, and so the study was subject to gender bias, where it is assumed that findings from male participants can be generalised to females (i.e. beta bias). Also age bias and culture bias.

Question 6

Give two weaknesses of Zimbardo’s study on conformity to social roles

Answer 6

Lacks ecological validity - The study suffered from demand characteristics. For example, the participants knew that they were participating in a study and therefore may have changed their behaviour, either to please the experimenter (a type of demand characteristic) or in response to being observed (participant reactivity, which acts as a confounding variable). The participants also knew that the study was not real so they claimed that they simply acted according to the expectations associated with their role rather genuinely adopting it. Participants also noticed the numerous cameras placed around the prison and their cells.
Lacks population validity – The sample only consisted of American male students and so the findings cannot be generalised to other genders and cultures. For example, collectivist cultures, such as China or Japan, may be more conformist to their prescribed social roles because such cultures value the needs of the group over the needs of the individual. This suggests that such findings may be culture-bound!
Ethical issues – Psychological harm – Participants were not protected from stress, anxiety, emotional distress and embarrassment e.g. one prisoner had to be released due to excess distress and uncontrollable screaming and crying

Question 7

Describe two explanations for Conformity

Answer 7

Informational Social Influence - When someone conforms because they want to be right, so they look to others by copying or obeying them, to have the right answer in a situation they would look to others for information. It usually leads to internalisation and occurs in situations where we do not have the knowledge or expertise to make our own decisions.
Normative Social Influence – when someone conforms because they want to be liked and be part of a group; when a person’s need to be accepted or have approval from a group
drives compliance. It often occurs when a person wants to avoid the embarrassing situation of disagreeing with the majority.

Question 8

Name 3 explanations for obedience

Answer 8

Agentic state
Legitimacy of authority
Situational factors

Question 9

Name the 3 types of conformity

Answer 9

Compliance
Identification
Internalisation

Question 10

Name 2 explanations of conformity

Answer 10

Informational social influence
Normative social influence

Question 11

Internalisation

Answer 11

Making the beliefs, values, attitude and behaviour of the group your own (the strongest type of conformity, and often occurs as a result of informational social influence). An individual’s change of view is permanent e.g. being brought up in a religious household, and becoming religious yourself.

Question 12

Identification

Answer 12

Temporary/short term change of behaviour and beliefs only in the presence of a group (middle level) e.g. acting more professional and less silly when you arrive at your office to work.

Question 13

Compliance

Answer 13

This means to follow other people’s ideas/to go along with the group to gain their approval or avoid disapproval. You publically agree but privately disagree (lowest/ weakest level of conformity) An individual’s change of view is temporary and is likely to occur as a result of normative social influence e.g. when friends pressure you into drinking alcohol when you don’t truly want to, and will not drink outside of such social situations.

Question 14

Informational Social Influence

Answer 14

When someone conforms because they want to be right, so they look to others by copying or obeying them, to have the right answer in a situation; when a person is uncertain or unsure, they would look to others for information. It usually leads to internalisation and occurs in situations where we do not have the knowledge or expertise to make our own decisions e.g. a person following the direction of the crowd in an emergency, even though they don’t actually know where they are going, as they assume that everyone else is going to the right place.

Question 15

Normative Social Influence

Answer 15

When someone conforms because they want to be liked and be part of a group; when a person’s need to be accepted or have approval from a group drives compliance. It often occurs when a person wants to avoid the embarrassing situation of disagreeing with the majority.

Question 16

Who participated in Ash’s study?

Answer 16

123 male American undergraduates in groups of 6; consisting of 1 true
participant and 5 confederates (actors/people in on the experiment)

Question 17

What was Ash’s aims/investigated?

Answer 17

To investigate conformity and majority influence
Variables affecting conformity: group size, unanimity and task difficulty as investigated by Asch

Question 18

What was Ash’s findings?

Answer 18

36.8% conformed
25% never conformed
75% conformed at least once
In a control trial, only 1% of responses given by participants were incorrect (which eliminates eyesight/perception as an extraneous variable, thus increasing the validity of the conclusions drawn)

Question 19

What was Ash’s procedure?

Answer 19

Participants and confederates were presented with 4 lines; 3 comparison lines and 1 standard line
They asked to state which of three lines was the same length as a stimulus line
The real participant always answered last or second to last
Confederates would give the same incorrect answer for 12 out of 18 trials
Asch observed how often the participant would give the same incorrect answer as the confederates versus the correct answer

Question 20

Who participated in Zimbardo’s study?

Answer 20

24 American male undergraduate students

Question 21

What was the aim of Zimbardo’s study?

Answer 21

To investigate how readily people would conform to the social roles in a simulated environment, and specifically, to investigate why ‘good people do bad things’

Question 22

What was the procedure of Zimbardo’s prison experiment?

Answer 22

The basement of the Stanford University psychology building was converted into a simulated prison.
American student volunteers were paid to take part in the study.
They were randomly issued one of two
roles; guard or prisoner.
Both prisoners and guards had to wear uniforms.
Prisoners were only referred to by their assigned number.
Guards were given props like handcuffs and sunglasses (to make eye contact with prisoners impossible and to reinforce the boundaries between the two social roles within the established social hierarchy).
No one was allowed to leave the simulated prison.
Guards worked eight hour shifts, while the others remained on call.
Prisoners were only allowed in the hallway which acted as their yard, and to the toilet. The guards were allowed to control such behaviour, in order to emphasise their complete power over the prisoners!
No physical violence was permitted, in line with ethical guidelines and to prevent complete overruling.
The behaviour of the participants was observed.

Question 23

What were the findings of Zimbardo’s prison experiment?

Answer 23

Identification occurred very fast, as both the prisoners and guards adopted their new roles and played their part in a short amount of time, despite the apparent disparity between the two social roles.
Guards began to harass and torment prisoners in harsh and aggressive ways – they later reported to have enjoyed doing so and relished in their new-found power and control.
Prisoners would only talk about prison issues (forgetting about their previous real life), and snitch on other prisoners to the guards to please them. This is significant evidence to suggest that the prisoners believed that the prison was real, and were not acting simply due to demand characteristics.
They would even defend the guards when other prisoners broke the rules, reinforcing their social roles as prisoner and guard, despite it not being real.
The guards became more demanding of obedience and assertiveness towards the prisoners while the prisoners become more submissive. This suggests that the respective social roles became increasingly internalised.

Question 24

Agentic state

Answer 24

This is when a person believes that someone else will take responsibility for their own actions. When a person shifts from an autonomous state (the state in which a person believes they will take responsibility for their own actions) to the agentic state, it is called an Agentic Shift. Therefore, agency theory is the idea that people are more likely to obey when they are in the agentic state as they do not believe they will suffer the consequences of those actions. This is because they believe that they are acting on behalf of their agent

Question 25

Legitimacy of authority

Answer 25

This describes how credible the figure of authority is. People are more likely to obey them if they are seen as credible in terms of being morally good/right, and legitimate (i.e. legally based or law abiding). This is why students are more likely to listen to their parents or teachers than other unknown adults. In Milgram’s study, the people saw the experimenter as legitimate as they knew he was a scientist and therefore is likely to be knowledgeable and responsible - this is called expert authority. This authority was legitimate (justified) because the researcher held the highest position within the social hierarchy of the experimental scenario.

Question 26

What are the 3 situational factors that effect obedience?

Answer 26

Appearance of authority figure Location/Surroundings Proximity

Question 27

How does appearance of an authority figure effect obedience?

Answer 27

A person is more likely to obey someone wearing a uniform as it gives them a higher status and a greater sense of legitimacy. It was found that obedience was much higher when the experimenter wore a lab coat as opposed to normal clothes. However, demand characteristics were particularly evident in this condition, with even Milgram admitting that many participants could see through this deception

Question 28

How does location/surroundings effect obedience?

Answer 28

A person is more likely to obey someone in a location linked to higher status and legitimacy. Milgram’s study was conducted at a prestigious American university (Yale), and so obedience was greater than in a variation of the study conducted in a rundown office. This is because the prestigious nature of specific locations demand obedience from participants as well as potentially increasing the trust that they place in the researchers

Question 29

How does proximity effect obedience?

Answer 29

A person is more likely to obey when they are less able to see the negative consequences of t heir actions and are in closer proximity to the authority figure. This is because it increases the pressure to obey and decreases the to pressure resist. In Milgram’s study, obedience was higher when the experimenter was in the same room (62.5%) as the participant as opposed to being in a different room and speaking over the phone i.e. the remote instruction condition (20.5% obedience levels).

Question 30

Who participated in Milgram's study?

Answer 30

Randomly selected participants - 40 male volunteers.

Question 31

What was the aim/ what was investigated by Milgram?

Answer 31

To observe whether people would obey a figure of authority when told to harm another person i.e. evaluating the influence of a destructive authority figure. Variables affecting Obedience including Proximity, Location and Uniform, as investigated by Milgram

Question 32

What are the findings of Milgram's study (Proximity)?

Answer 32

Participants obeyed more when the experimenter was in the same room i.e. 62.5%. This was reduced to 40% when the experimenter and participant were in separate rooms, and reduced to a further 30% in the touch proximity condition i.e. where the experimenter forcibly placed the participant’s hand on the electric plate.

Question 33

What are the findings of Milgram's study (Location)?

Answer 33

Participants obeyed more when the study was conducted at a prestigious university i.e. Stanford. This is because the prestige of such a location demands obedience and also may increase the trust that the participant places in the integrity of the researchers and their experiments

Question 34

What are the findings of Milgram's study (Uniform)?

Answer 34

Participants obeyed more when the experimenter wore a lab coat. A person is more likely to obey someone wearing a uniform as it gives them a higher status and a greater sense of legitimacy. It was found that obedience was much higher when the experimenter wore a lab coat as opposed to normal clothes. However, demand characteristics were particularly evident in this condition, with even Milgram admitting that many participants could see through this deception.

Question 35

What are the findings of Milgram's study?

Answer 35

All participants went up to 300V and 65% went up to 450V. No participants stopped below 300V, whilst only 12.5% stopped at 300V, showing that the vast majority of participants were prepared to give lethal electric shocks to a confederate.

Question 36

What is a dispositional explanation for obedience?

Answer 36

The Authoritarian Personality

Question 37

How is Authoritarian personality measured?

Answer 37

The F-scale

Question 38

Describe the authoritarian personality.

Answer 38

The authoritarian personality is when you believe that people should completely obey or submit to their authority figures, and suppress their own beliefs. This means that they believe they should strictly submit to those higher in authority but those who are perceived as lower than the individual should also submit to the individual. This term was coined by Theodore Adorno. Such individuals have a ‘fixed’ cognitive style, where they do not challenge stereotypes due to their tendency to adopt absolutist/‘black and white’ thinking.

Question 39

What approach did Adorno take?

Answer 39

Adorno believed in the psychodynamic theory i.e. that a person’s personality traits and attitudes as an adult stemmed from childhood influences such as that of one’s parents. He found that when a child had overly harsh and disciplinarian parents, the child would displace their anger with their parents onto seemingly ‘inferior’ others, through the process of scapegoating. On a surface level, they would idolise their parents, but on an unconscious level, they would fear and despise them, and so arises the need to displace such anger. The child would be more likely to target their displaced anger on those who seem weak and unable to defend themselves, such as minority groups. This is known as reaction formation and is often seen in current politics

Question 40

What are two explanations of resistance to social influence?

Answer 40

Social support Locus of control

Question 41

What is locus of control?

Answer 41

The locus of control is a measurement of an individual’s sense of control over their lives, i.e to what extent they feel that events in their lives are under their own personal control, versus under the control of other external powers like fate.

Question 42

Describe those with an internal locus of control.

Answer 42

People with more of an internal locus of control conform and obey less - this because they take more responsibility for their own actions and see themselves as having more control than someone with a high external locus of control, and so are more likely to make decisions based on their own moral code, as opposed to someone else’s. Therefore, people with a high internal locus of control are more likely to be leaders, not followers.

Question 43

Describe those with an external locus of control.

Answer 43

Those with an external locus of control believe that the majority of their life events are beyond their control, this means that they are more likely to act on behalf of another (i.e. as their agent) and shift responsibility onto this individual. Those with an external locus of control are particularly susceptible towards obedience.

Question 44

Name a study into minority influence.

Answer 44

Moscovici’s study

Question 45

What was the aim of Moscovici’s study?

Answer 45

To observe how minorities can influence a majority

Question 46

Describe the procedure of Moscovici's study.

Answer 46

* It was a lab experiment * Participants were in a group where there were two confederates (the minority) and four participants (the majority). * Everyone was shown 36 blue slides, each with a different shade of blue. * They were each asked to say whether the slide was blue or green. * Confederates deliberately said they were green on two-thirds of the trials, thus producing a consistent minority view. * The number of times that the real participants reported that the slide was green was observed. * A control group was also used consisting of participants only – no confederates..

Question 47

Describe Moscovici's findings.

Answer 47

When the confederates were consistent in their answers about 8% of participants said the slides were green. However, when the confederates answered inconsistently about 1% of participants said the slides were green. This shows that consistency is crucial for a minority to exert maximum influence on a majority.

Question 48

What 3 factors influence minority influence?

Answer 48

Consistency Flexibility Commitment

Question 49

Why is the majority more likely to be influenced when the minority is consistent?

Answer 49

This is because it makes the opposition think that the views of the minority are real and serious enough to pay attention to (i.e. the augmentation principle), if they are so determined to stay consistent. If all members share the same views (synchronic), then it can convince the majority that there is something worth agreeing with. Remaining consistent over time (diachronic synchrony) forces the opposition to rethink their own views repeatedly over time and generates more doubt due to the conflicting views, which allows more opportunity to be influenced.

Question 50

What are the two types of consistency?

Answer 50

Diachronic consistency Synchronic consistency

Question 51

What is Synchronic consistency?

Answer 51

Synchronic consistency is when the group is consistent between all the members of the group – everyone in the group has the same views, and therefore agree with and support each other.

Question 52

What is Diachronic synchrony?

Answer 52

Diachronic consistency is when the group remains consistent over time – they do not change their views over time.

Question 53

How does commitment influence minority influence?

Answer 53

The majority is more likely to be influenced by the minority when the minority is committed, because when the minority have so much passion and confidence in their point of view, it suggests to the majority that their view must somehow be valid, and it encourages them to explore why; offering more opportunity to be influenced.

Question 54

How does flexibility influence minority influence?

Answer 54

The majority is more likely to be influenced by the minority when the minority is flexible. Being too consistent can suggest that the minority is inflexible, uncompromising and irrational, making their argument less appealing to the majority. However, if they appear flexible, compromising and rational, they are less likely to be seen as extremists and attention seekers. They are more likely to be seen as reasonable, considerate and cooperative.

Question 55

What are examples of social influence processes in social change?

Answer 55

Examples of social influence processes are strategies that can cause social change, which is when there is a shift in the beliefs or behaviour of an entire population (and not simple isolated groups of people), and the previously widely accepted norm changes to be something new. These strategies include utilising minority influence, encouraging an internal locus of control and disobedience to authority.

Question 56

What is minority influence?

Answer 56

Minority influence is the main cause of social change. The minority group manages to persuade the majority to adopt their point of view by being consistent, committed and flexible. However, the minority must have an internal locus of control to resist compliance, while also being able to disobey authority to drive their point into the limelight. The importance of consistency, flexibility (Nemeth) and commitment were demonstrated by Moscovici.

Question 57

What happens when the minority begins to be successful in their attempts to influence the majority?

Answer 57

When the minority begins to be successful in their attempts to influence the majority, it triggers a snowball effect as the new idea spreads and builds up over time in the majority, to eventually be adopted as the majority opinion (where the rate of conversion is higher than the number of the previous majority view). Those who are refuse to be influenced by the new idea will eventually be forced to comply by the majority. The new majority opinion also tend to become the law, so people are forced to obey it.