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PSYCH2B > Social Psychology > Flashcards

Social Psychology Flashcards

1
Q

What is social cognition?

A

How people judge and think about others and about their own social behaviours and that of others

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2
Q

What is the Theory of Planned Behaviour?

A

What aspects lead us to a certain behaviour. The three aspects are:
-Perceived control (Im addicted and cant do anything about it cuz I am a victim vs I am in control of this, I can change)
-Attitudes (beliefs about a certain behaviour, do I really want to change, do I want to be not be addicted anymore, do I truly believe itll be beneficial to my health etc)
-Subjective norms (beliefs about others’ attitudes toward a behavior)

These form a behavioural intention that will lead to a behaviour

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3
Q

What other aspects can influence behaviour that is not taken into account in TPB?

A

Triggered by environmental cues
Unconscious thinking like
Habits
Impulsive processes
Social norms

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4
Q

What is the dual processing model?

A

Reflective vs impulsive
Effortful vs effortless
Fast vs slow thinking

Logical, slow, rational, deliberate thought process before acting
Vs
faster, emotional and instinctive thought process before acting

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5
Q

An individual has relatively limited power - what other changes can lead to behavioural change?

A

Physical hinderances eg not having enough cycling paths
Financial barriers - not having the money to help yourself
Political/policies
Personal events - moving house

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6
Q

What are Social inferences?

A

Assumptions that are based in logic and evidence. From minimal information we fill the gaps in our knowledge about ourselves and others

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7
Q

Explain Milgrams experiment on Obedience

Teacher - Learner

A

Ordinary people are likely to follow orders given by an authority figure, even to the extent of killing an innocent human being. Obedience to authority is ingrained in us all from the way we are brought up.
Teacher (participant) and learner (Milgrams confederate). Participant had to electrocute learner with every wrong answer. Experimenter had to urge them on with 4 generic sentences they would repeat

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8
Q

Explain Zimbardos Prison Experiment experiment on Social roles

A

Zimbardo (1973) conducted an extremely controversial study on conformity to social roles, called the Stanford Prison Experiment.
His aim was to examine whether people would conform to the social roles of a prison guard or prisoner, when placed in a mock prison environment. The participants were randomly assigned to one of two social roles, prisoners or guards.
Zimbardo found that both the prisoners and guards quickly identified with their social roles. Within days the prisoners rebelled, but this was quickly crushed by the guards, who then grew increasingly abusive towards the prisoners. The guards dehumanised the prisoners, waking them during the night and forcing them to clean toilets with their bare hands; the prisoners became increasingly submissive, identifying further with their subordinate role.
Zimbardo concluded that people quickly conform to social roles, even when the role goes against their moral principles.

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9
Q

Explain Asch experiment on Conformity

A

The experiments revealed the degree to which a person’s own opinions are influenced by those of a group. Asch found that people were willing to ignore reality and give an incorrect answer in order to conform to the rest of the group.
This research has provided important insight into how, why, and when people conform and the effects of social pressure on behavior.

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10
Q

What is Heuristic Processing?

A

Heuristic processing is where perceiever acts like cognitive miser, processing resources are finite and valuable so need to engage in time saving mental shortcuts when trying to understand social world. Quick and easy analysis usually giving lower accuracy outcomes
Eg having hard time buying a book then you see one ranked highly on a book review website. Using a “rule of thumb” that a recommendation from a creidble source is a safe bet

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11
Q

What is Systematic Processing?

A

Perceiver acts like naive scientist , where processing is based on rational, logical analysis using cause and effect of available information

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12
Q

What is accessibility and priming of information?

A

Accessibility - To what extent are the past experiences, schemas and concepts that you have built near the front of your brain - how accessible are they that you will often go back to them an use them?
Priming - Process by which recent experiences/exposures increases the accessibility of a schema or concept

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13
Q

What is priming (in contrast to accesibility) of information?

A

Process by which recent exposrures increases the accessibilty of a schema, trait or concept, affecting us to form particular judgments and influence our thoughts and behaviors
HOWEVER, more recent research on priming has been shown to be inconsistent

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13
Q

What is survivorship bias? Give an example

A

Occurs when researchers focus on individuals, groups, or cases that have passed some sort of selection process while ignoring or not having access to those who did not. For example the new helmets implemented in world war II - So many people were coming back with head injuries despite wearing the helmet, which led doctors to think the helmets were not good enough, when in fact it was saving more lives –> more people were coming to the hospital instead of dying out on the field

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14
Q

What are some commonalities in studies that failed to replicate?

A

Small sample sizes
Selective reporting
Socially complex experimental conditions

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14
Q

!!How is survivorship bias related to publication bias?

A
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15
Q

What is confirmation bias? What kind of issue can it lead to?

A

Looking/focusing on information that supports your ideas or claims, you are searching to prove and confirm your beliefs. This can often lead to HARKing

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16
Q

What is cherry picking?

A

Reporting only the data that follow your hypothesis or what your interested in, instead of releasing all the information, even the things that go against or make ambiguous what youre researching

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17
Q

Broadly explain what does attribution theory is

A

Attribution theory attempts to explain the cause of our and others behaviours

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18
Q

According to the attribution theory, we are naive scientists that are motivated by what two primary needs? According to Heider, why do we have this basic need to atttribute causality?

A
  1. To form a COHERENT VIEW of the world - adding structure to ease understanding of our world
  2. To GAIN CONTROL over the environment
    We have this need to attribute causality to be able to make our world more clear to us, more structured and predictable, which reduces uncertainty
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19
Q

What are the two main dimensions of the locus of causality?

A

internal or external - do we think this person acting like this because thats how they are, its their personality (dispositional/internal) or because of the environment/things that are happening around them (situational/external factors)

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20
Q

What are some additional dimensions to the locus of causality?

A

Stable/unstable causes
and how much control a person has over this circumstance

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21
Q

Give examples of Attributional biases

A

Fundamental Attribution Error
Actor-observer bias
Spousal attributions
Ultimate Attribution Error

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22
Q

!!What is the fundamental attribution error

A
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23
Q

!!What is perceptual salience and how does it relate to the fundamental attribution error?

A

Perceptual Salience is the concept that the things that you are paying most attention to is what youre going to perceiev as being more noticeable/salient/prominent
It relates to fundamental attribution error in that

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24
Q

Explain spousal attributions in happy marriages vs unhappy marriages

A

In happy marriages, good things will be attributed internally to the partner, whereas bad things will be attributed to situational factors.
In unhappy marriages, good things will be attributed to situational factors, while bad things will be attributed internally

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25
Q

!!What is the actor-observer bias?

A

u mess up, its external, when others mess up its internal

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26
Q

!!What is intergroup attribution?

A
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27
Q

!!What is the ultimate attribution error?

A
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28
Q

What are some challenges to the concepts laid by the attribution theory?

A

It is not universal, most experiments conducted in the west/US. Studies have suggested that there are differences in collectivist and individualistic cultures. Not only that, depending on the situation, a person may behaviour in a more individualistic or collectivist way

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29
Q

What are social norms?

A

Unspoken rules of society, conventions, “normal ways of behaving”

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30
Q

Name a few aspects of what a social norm is:

A

-Culturally based
-Collective behaviours
-Interdependence vs independence
-Dynamic

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31
Q

Give some examples of social norms

A

-Standing in a queue and not talking
-Distance from which you have a conversation with someone
-Greetings

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32
Q

Why do we use norms?

A

-Inform our decisions, others as a source of information to help navigate the world
-Avoid feelings of being ostrasized
-social pressure: if you dont comply others will notice and may force you to comply

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33
Q

Name the 3 types of norms:

A

Injunctive norm
Descriptive norm
Subjective norm

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34
Q

!!What is an injunctive norm? Give an example

A

Perceptions of what actions others will approve or disapporove of

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35
Q

What is a descriptive norm?

A

Perceptions about what others actually do
For example youre sat in a lecture and should be taking notes, but you dont see anyone else doing it so why should you? Is the mentality

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36
Q

!!What is a subjecitve norm? Give and example

A
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37
Q

What two reasons/theories are used to explain why we use norms?

A

Informational social influence
Normative social influence

38
Q

!!What is informational social influence?

A

AIt comes from a need to know whats right, to fit into society, we need to know how to live and function as a society and avoid chaos

39
Q

!!What is the normative social influence? GIve and example

A

This influence involves a need to be accepted, has to do with humans fundamental need for social companionship and conforming in order to be accepted. Not from a need to use others as a source of information, but rather so as to not attract attention and be made fun of

40
Q

!!What is the Autokenetic effect?

A
41
Q

What is the difference between public and private acceptance?

A

Public acceptance - you conform to the majority/publics opinion without necessarily agreeing or thinking its right (normaitve social influence?)
Private acceptance - you conform to the majority/publics opinion out of a genuine belief that what they are doing or saying, is right (informnaitonal soial influence?)

42
Q

What are the two universal norms?

A

Obedience and Reciprocity
Obedeince to authority

Reciprocity is the norm that we repay what others have done for us. Form of cooperative behaviour

43
Q

When can norms be harmful?

A

WHen they support/sustain discirmninaroy traditions
Encouraging unhralth behaviours, eg drinking xultures, smoking in breaks in groups

44
Q

What are 4 examples of norm violations?

A

Social offences - rude behvaiour, eg interupting someone
Social Mores - unwritten rules on mokrality
Taboos - related to disgust eg burial rituals and sex practices
Breaking law - robbery, murder

45
Q

What is social faciliation?

A

The tendency people have to do better on simple tasks and worse in more difficult/unfamiliar tasks in the presence of others

46
Q

What forms can the “presence of others take” ?

A

They can be doing the same task as you
They can be watching you do a task
A person doesnt even need to be physically present, a pair of eyes can elicit such a response or the thought that someone is watching you and you cant see them

47
Q

Riggleman (1913) did research on individual performance and found the opposite findings to Triplett (1893). What was the phenomenon he encountered annd what does it mean?

A

Social Loafing
He found that in teams pulling a rope, people were not putting in as much effort as when they were alone - there was process loss.
Social loafing is when the presence of others makes you work less hard/do less

48
Q

What is the mere presence phenomenon?

A

Its is viewed as a minimal condition for social facilitation effects. Just the presence of others will elicit the dominant response

49
Q

What is Zajoncs explanations as to why the presence of others faciliates a well learned response but inhibits unfamiliar tasks?

A

The presence of others increases our physical AROUSAL (body becomes more energized). The simple task becomes the dominant response, it is the natural thing to do, whereas a not-well practiced task is not a dominant response and this extra energy is disruptive to us

50
Q

What are the three explanatory theories as to the role of arousal (Zajonc, 1965) in social facilitation

A
  1. Cottrells Evaluation Apprehension (We feel we are being evaluated)
  2. Distraction Conflict Theory
    (Arousal is a distraction)
  3. Impression Management
    (We want to to make a good impression)
51
Q

Explain the Social Loafing phenomenon and give an example

A

When the presence of a group relaxes us. People will do worse on simple tasks and better on unfamiliar ones.
For example if you are cheering for smth, the more people join in the cheering, the less effort you put into it

52
Q

What is the diffusion of responsibility and how does is it different from social loafing?

A

Social loafing may occur due to the diffusion of responsibility. People feel less individually responsible for any task at hand as they get “lost in the crowd”. However in more complex tasks, people often need to bring different talents to the table. So if an individual feels like they could be seen in some way, they will perform better. It makes people more accountable for what theyre doing. This will increase the individuals performance

53
Q

What is the ABC model of prejudicial processes? What are its components?

A

A. Emotional - ur instinctive reaction
B. Cognitive - your beliefs about people
C. Behavioural - how you behave based on A and B

54
Q

Which components of the ABC model do prejudice, stereotyping and discrimination belong to?

A

Prejudice - emotional component. It is a negative attitude or emotional response you have to a certain group and its individuals
Stereotype - cognitive component. They are a thoughts and belief someone holds about the attributes and charcteristics of members of a certain group
Discrimination - behavioural component. This is the unfair treatment of members of a particular group based on their membership in that group

55
Q

What is accentuation?

A

The tendency to exaggerate the similarities within groups and differences between groups.

56
Q

What is a stereotype? What are some characteristics of stereotypes?

A

Having a belief about the attributes and characteristics of members of a group.
-We readily categorize people into groups based on a few attributes
-they are learned early on in life
-they are slow to change. Unlikely unless change occurs int he wider social, political or economic world.
-Can become pronounced and hostile when social tensions are high

57
Q

Why do we form stereotypes?

A

Its a form of cognitive shortcut. We feel we know what to expect, it saves us cognitive resources. It isnt always bad, unless discrimination is associated with it

58
Q

What is the Illusory correlation? How is distinctive behaviour treated in an in group vs an out group

A

The tendency to see relationships that dont exist, or see them as stronger than they are
if an in group member acts strangely, it will not be seen as strange/an issue, however if an out group member does the exact same thing, it will stand out more to you.
there is a thinking bias that in group members will see out group members as homogenous and in group members as distinct
You can tolerate distinctiveness within your group but not in out groups

59
Q

What is the Realist Conflict Theory?

A

The theory states that whenever there are two or more groups that are seeking the same limited resources, this will lead to conflict, negative stereotypes and beliefs, and discrimination between the groups. When there are no problems, hostility between groups wont necessarily arise, but when there is a strain, the attitude becomes negative as it starts feeling like us vs them, like there is competition

60
Q

What are some group level approaches to conflict?

A

Competing goal groups causes independance an conflict, while shared group goals elicits interdependance and cooperation

61
Q

There can be more extreme forms of prejudice when there is a threat to the in group. Name some potential threats:

A

Threat to :
group norms and values
group status/ esteem/reputation
groups existence
groups resources

62
Q

Explain the three stages of the Robbers Cave Experiment

A

Group attachment phase
Integroup Competition
Intergroup Reconciliation

63
Q

What two methods were attempted in the intergroup reconciliation phase of the robbers cave experiment

A

Contact hypothesis
Subordinate goals

64
Q

What is the Social Identity Theory?

A

The theory argues that group memberships are based on shared characteristics, such as race, gender, or nationality. And these group memberships shape our self-concept and sense of self-worth

65
Q

What are the three important components of the Social Identity Theory?

A

Categorization - what are the different groups I perceive/ what are the options
Identificaiton - which groups do I see myself being a part of?
Comparison - what sets this group apart from others, exaggerate differences between groups, comparing between “us” and “them”

66
Q

Social identites drive what factors?:

A

In group favoritism
Out group differentiation
Stereotyping
Ethnocentrism

67
Q

What is the Stereotype content model? What are the two dimensions?

A

This model attempts to explain how beliefs and emotions can predict specific behavioral tendencies towards different group members.
The two dimensions are warmth and competence. People can be categorized in a 2 x 2 box combing high competence + high warmth , high competence low warmth, low competence high warmth, and low competence low warmth

68
Q

How is intersectionality and stigma related?

A

Intersectionality is the different forms of stigma interacting with one another. Different forms of stigma dont exist in isolation but rather intersect and interact with eachother, leading to unique experiences of oppression

69
Q

!!What is stigma?

A

-mark of disgrace associated with a particular circumstance, quality, person or group

70
Q

What are microaggressions and why can they be particularly triggering?

A

Microagressions can be comments that stigmatized groups are going to be sensitive to. They are difficult and triggering as the person receiving such a comment cannot know for sure how this comment was meant - whether they are being sensitive about it or whether this was a small act of discirmination/aggression towards them

71
Q

What are the three types of stigma identities?

A

Visible identities
Concealed identities
Controllable identities

72
Q

What are different types of Stigma?

A

Public
Self
Institutionalized

73
Q

What is a normative identity?

A
74
Q

Explain the cycle of stigma and ill mental health

A

Ill health is stigmatized. But this stigma triggers more ill health because of
-heightened stress response
-affecting their health behaviours
feeling alone etc

75
Q

What is the link between stigmatized people and self esteem? What was originally thought about the self esteem of stigmatized people?

A

Originally it was thought that stigmatized people had lower self esteem, but this has not really been shown in research
Stigmatized groups learn coping mechanisms where they protect their self esteem- externalizing rather than internalizing things that happen to them. To call discrimination out instead of internalizing it and thinking “what is wrong with me”

76
Q

What is Dysphoria?

A

A general state of unease and dissatisfaction with life - powerful feeling of discomfort and distress

77
Q

Name 3 types of dysphoria

A

Body - dont like the way body looks, functions..
Social - dont like how you think you are socially perceived by others
Mind - discomfort with ur sense of identity, thoughts and emotions are at odds with identity, eg thinking youre kind but get feedback that are super selfish person?

78
Q

Give examples of how stigma is all pervasive

A

Eurocentric world map
Idea of what a family is
Mental ill health

79
Q

What are some stigma interventions

A

In the language that we use
Putting the person first, being descriptive

80
Q

What is the difference between implicit and declared attitudes?

A

Implicit - more instinctive, you may not even know that you have these views until you dont pay attention to what youre saying, situation overtakes you etc. System 1 thinking, faster, instinctive and emotional

Declared attitudes - involves deliberate processes and can easily override system 1 implicit attitudes

81
Q

What are base/foundational attitudes?

A
82
Q

What is the distinction between attitude and behaviour and what is their relationship?

A
83
Q

Attitude change methods

A

Intergroup or individual

84
Q

Behaviour change methods

A

Goal setting
habits

85
Q

What is the intergroup contact theory? What does it attempt to change?
What were some issues found with it by Paluck, green and green 2019?

A
86
Q

What was the purpose of the Jigsaw Classroom experiment? Was it successful?

A
87
Q

What are some individual approaches to change of attitude and how do they ellicit attitude change?

A

Affective approach and counter attitudinal advocacy.
The Affective approach tries to change attitude by perspcetive taking and building empathy
Can be valuable especially when the people in question dont have much contact

Counter attitudinal advocacy - generating arguments that contradicts you own beliefs/attitudes. Using self persuasion.

88
Q

What were Festinger and Carlsmith 1959 findings on Counter Attitudinal Advocacy? What concept did they figure out?

A

The concept they addressed was cognitive dissonance. When your behaviour and attitudes dont match with one another and causes discomfort.
What they found is that when given enough justification for their behaviour (that is against their beliefs/attitudes) they will not experience much cognitive dissonance. However those with insufficient jusitifcation for their contradicitng behaviour, they will adapt their attitudes to their behaviour. In experiment, the ones paid 1 dollar reported having enjoyed the tasks more and showed greater positive attitude towards them

89
Q

Give examples as to Bem 1956 idea that behaviours can cause attitudes, not just the other way around

A
90
Q

What is the Yale Approach? What are the three components to take into account?

A
91
Q

Name the two routes to attitude change

A

Central and peripheral routes

92
Q

What is the central route attitude change?

A
93
Q

What is meant by the peripheral route to persuasion/attitude change?

A
94
Q

What is the Elaboration Liklihood Model

A
95
Q

What is the link between heuristic/systematic processing and central/peripheral routes to attitude change

A

PSYCH2B (12 decks)

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