Social Psychology Flashcards
(188 cards)
1
Q
what are the 3 types of ‘self’ according to brewer and gardner 1996?
A
1) Individual – personal traits that distinguish you from others (friendly)
2) Relational – dyadic relationships that assimilate you to others (mum)
3) Collective – group membership (academic)
2
Q
what is ‘self awareness’?
A
- Psychological state - traits, feelings and behaviour
- Reflexive thought
- Realisation of being individual (mirror study - Gallup 1970)
3
Q
what is the difference between public and private ‘self’ according to carver and scheier 1981?
A
- Private self - thoughts, feelings, attitudes
- Public self - social image, can be seen/evaluated by others, enjoy success, adhere to social standards of behaviour
4
Q
what is chronic self awareness?
A
Chronic self-awareness refers to a persistent and heightened state of attention directed towards oneself
- Very stressful - always aware of shortcomings
- Avoidance behaviour - drinking, drugs
5
Q
what is reduced self awareness?
A
is a state in which an individual’s attention is directed away from themselves and their internal states
- Deindividuation
- No monitoring of own behaviour - impulsive, reckless
6
Q
what is the difference between heighetend private and public in people who are chronically aware?
A
- HEIGHTENED PRIVATE - more intense emotion, accurate self-perception, adhere to personal beliefs, less stress related illness, depression and neuroticism
HEIGHTENED PUBLIC - focus on perception by others, nervousness, loss of self-esteem, concern w/ physical appearance (self/others)
7
Q
what are self schemas?
A
Self-schemas are organized, interconnected knowledge structures (cognitive frameworks) that we have about ourselves
8
Q
what does self-schematic mean?
A
describes someone who has a well-developed and important self-schema for a particular attribute, dimension, or domain
= Meaning you possess a strong and relevant self-schema for that particular thing.
9
Q
what does Aschematic mean?
A
describes someone who does not have a well-developed and important self-schema for a particular attribute, dimension, or domain. It’s the opposite of being “self-schematic.”
10
Q
what is the control theory of self regulation?
A
carver and scheier 1981 theory on self development (schemas):
says we manage ourselves - assess whether goals are met
= we test and operate to change
= to a private/public standard
11
Q
what is the self-discrepancy theory?
A
higgins 1987 theory of self development (schemas):
says we have - actual(present), ideal(like to be) and ought(should be)
motivate to change and if fail:
actual-ideal = dejection (sadness/disappointment)
actual- ought = agitation (anxiety/guilt)
12
Q
what is the social comparison theory?
A
festinger 1954 theory on self development (schemas):
- figure out how good we are by looking at other people who are similar to us.
- Looking at people better than us can make us feel worse but might motivate us.
- Looking at people worse than us can make us feel better.
13
Q
what is the self evaluation maintenance?
A
tesser 1988 theory of self development (schema):
- upward social comparison:
exagerate targets ability, change target, distance self from target
14
Q
what is the social identity theory?
A
taijfel and turner 1979 theory of self development (schema):
- personal identity: unique personal attributes, relationships and traits
- social identity: defines self by group membership -> associated w/ inter-group behaviour/group norms
15
Q
what is the self-categorization theory?
A
turner et al 1987 theory of self development (schema):
- self categorisation to groups = internalise group attributes = collective self = social identity
- meta-contrast principle (differences, similarities)
* If group categorisation too salient, perception of self and others becomes depersonalised
16
Q
what are the 3 types of self motivation?
A
SELF-ASESSEMENT:
- Desires for accurate and valid info
- Seek out the truth about self
SELF-VERIFICATION:
- Desire to confirm what they know
- Seek out consistency about self
SELF ENHANCEMENT:
- Desire to maintain good image
Seek favourable info about self
17
Q
what is the difference between social psychology and social cognition?
A
Social psychology: perceptions and behaviour and how influenced by others
Social cognition: how we process and store social info, how this affects our perceptions/behaviour
18
Q
what is attribution?
A
ATTRIBUTION: process of assigning a cause to our own and others behaviour
19
Q
what are (social) schemas?
A
knowledge about concepts, make sense w/ limited info, facilitate top-down-theory driven processing
20
Q
what is a ‘category’ in context of social cognition and biases?
A
CATEGORY: organised hierarchically (associative network), fuzzy sets of features organised around a prototype
21
Q
what are ‘prototypes’ in context of social cognition and biases?
A
PROTOTYPES: cognitive representation of typical defining features of a category (average category member)
22
Q
what is ‘causal attribution’ in context of social cognition and biases?
A
CAUSAL ATTRIBUTION:
An inference process through which perceivers attribute an effect to one of more causes
E.g. trying to answer ‘why’ one has failed an exam despite studying
23
Q
what is ‘motivation tactation’ in context of social cognition and biases?
A
- Thinking carefully and scientifically about certain things - when personally important or necessary
- Thinking quickly and use heuristics for others - when less important so that can do things quickly and get more done
24
Q
what is the naïve scientist theory of attribution?
A
fritz heider 1958: - Homo rationalis
all like amateur detectives trying to figure out why people do what they do (hypothesis testing):
1) to form coherent view of world (search for motives in others)
2) to gain control over environment (look for props to cause acts)
3) to identify internal vs external factors
25
what is the attributional theory of achievement motivation
?
weiner 1979 Attributional Theory of Achievement Motivation:
how ppl explain causes of success/failure = how these attributions influence their emotions/expectations, and motivation in achievement-related contexts
is cause of outcome...
locus (I/E), stable, controllable
26
what is the correspondent interference theory of attribution?
jones and davis 1965:
how we make inferences about a person's disposition based on their behavior
must consider several factors (e.g. freely chosen etc) to determine the likelihood of a "correspondent inference." (act reflects true characteristic)
27
what is the co-variation model as a theory of attribution?
kelley 1967:
we make causal inferences by seeing patterns of covariation = how different factors systematically vary together with the behavior we're trying to explain
= assign causal role to the factors
based on consistency - high and low
28
what are attribution biases?
systematic errors or tendencies in the way we explain the causes of our own and others' behavior
29
what does false consensus mean?
a cognitive bias where individuals overestimate the extent to which others share their beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors
30
what is the fundamental attribution error?
tendency to overemphasize dispositional (internal) explanations and underestimate situational (external, environmental) explanations when judging the behavior of other people.
also known as correspondance bias
31
what is actor-observor bias as a type of attribution bias?
jonas and nisbett 1972:
where we have a systematic difference in how we explain our own behavior versus the behavior of other people:
- Attribute our own actions to situational factors
- Attribute other people's actions to dispositional factors
* WHY?
- Perceptual focus
- Informational difference
- Moderators
32
what is self-serving bias as a type of attribution bias?
olsen and ross 1988:
- Success = internal E.g. I am smart
- Failure = external E.g. the exam was hard
WHY?
Expectations and self esteem
- Motivational: maintenance of self-esteem
- Split into enhancing and self protecting bias
- Cognitive: intend/expect to succeed = attribute internal causes to expected events
- Operates at a group level too (e.g. football wins/losses)
33
what are attribution heuristics?
mental shortcuts or "rules of thumb" that people use to make quick and efficient judgments about the causes of behavior and events.
= quick ad easy
34
what are availability heuristics in context of attribution?
AVAILIBILITY HEURISTIC: judge frequency or probability of events by how easy it is to think of examples - memory accessibility
35
what are representative heuristics in context of attribution?
REPRESENTATIVE HEURISTIC: categorise based on similarity between instance and prototypical category members
Allocate a set of attributes
36
what are anchoring and adjustment heuristics in context of attribution?
ANCHORING AND ADJUSTMENT HEURISTIC: starting point or initial standard influences subsequent judgments
37
what are heuristics?
mental shortcuts or "rules of thumb" that people use to make quick judgments and decisions, especially when faced with uncertain or complex situations
38
what is the three-component model of attitudes?
rosenberg and hovland 1960:
- AFFECTIVE - expressions of feelings towards object
- COGNITIVE - expressions of beliefs about object
- BEHAVIOURAL
39
what are the simple and complex dimensions of attitudes?
simple: refers to whether an attitude is positive, negative, or neutral
complex: Attitudes become stronger - more extreme p/n - if complex + evaluated consistently
If inconsistent - become weaker/moderate as they come more complex
40
what is the knowledge function of attitudes according to katz 1960?
Knowledge Function: Organise and predict social world; provides a sense of meaning and coherence.
41
what is the utilitarian function of attitudes according to katz 1960?
Utilitarian Function: Help people achieve positive outcomes and avoid negative outcomes (e.g., right attitude = no punishment).
42
what is the ego-defensive function of attitudes according to katz 1960?
Ego-defensive: Protecting one’s self-esteem from harmful world (e.g., many other people smoke, justifying the bad habit).
43
what is the value expressive function of attitudes according to katz 1960?
Value Expressive: Facilitate expression of one's core values and self-concept.
44
what is the mere exposure effect?
robert zajonc 1968:
theory of where attitudes come from:
epeated exposure of a stimulus = enhancement of preference for that stimulus
= e.g. ppts more likely to say that familiar novel words meant something positive - harrison and zajonc 1970
45
what is the social learning theory for where attitudes come from?
classical conditioning - Repeated association
= e.g. celebrity endorsement - transfer the positive image of the celebrity to the product e.g. jun et al 2023
Instrumental conditioning
- Behaviour followed by positive consequences = more likely to be repeated
e.g. insko 1965 - showed that ppts reported more favourable attitude to topic if they'd received positive feedback vs negative on the same attitude a week later
46
what is the self perception theory for where attitudes come from?
Bem 1972:
- Gain knowledge of ourselves by making self-attributions:
- Infer attitudes from our behaviour:
E.g. I read a novel a week = I must like novels
47
what were LaPieres 1934 findings on the different effects of attitudes on behaviour?
study on racial prejudice:
Chinese couple visited 250+ restaurants/coffee shops etc, service 95% of the times
BUT - in response to a letter of inquiry afterwards, 92% of establishments replied they wouldnt accept members of the Chinese race
48
what was the correlation between attitudes and behaviour in wicker 1969 meta analysis w/ 42 studies?
attitudes weakly correlated w/ behaviour - average correlation = 0.15 in meta-analysis w/ 42 studies
49
what was the correlation between attitudes and behaviour in gregson and stacy 1981 study?
small positive correlation between attitudes and alcohol consumption
50
what are the factors that impact behaviour prediction from attitudes ?
1) How strong the attitude is
2) Whether its formed through direct experience
3) How its measured
51
what is the theory of planned behaviour?
Ajzen 1991; multiple components;
Proposes ppl make decisions as a result of rational thought processes - attitude to behaviour
- subjective norm
- percieved behavioural control
= intention - behaviour
52
what study has been done to test if the theory of planned behaviour can be applied across cultures?
Cho and Lee 2015:
polled Korean + US ppts = found evidence for the theoretical constructs, also boundary conditions
findings support:
- Individualistic culture = behaviour determined by self-perceptions or internal beliefs
- Collectivist cultures = behaviours determined by social group pressures
53
what is cognitive dissonance?
refers to the state of mental discomfort (tension or unease) that arises when a person holds two or more conflicting beliefs, ideas, or values; or when a person's behavior contradicts their beliefs or values
54
what is the elaboration likelihood model?
petty and cacioppo 1986:
a dual-process theory describing how attitudes are formed and changed.
Central route = when message is followed closely, lots of effort is put into it
Peripheral route = when arguments not well attended to; peripheral cues e.g. attraction
55
what is the heuristic-systematic model?
chaiken 1980 a dual-process theory describing how attitudes are formed and changed. explains how people process persuasive messages and form attitudes
Systematic processing - when a message is attended to carefully; scan and consider available arguments
Heuristic processing - use cognitive heuristics - e.g. statistics don’t lie
56
what is the difference between the elaboration likelihood model and the heuristic-systematic model of attitudes?
A key difference is that the HSM allows for the possibility of both systematic and heuristic processing to occur simultaneously and interact
57
what are transitory groups?
e.g. ppl waiting at the bus stop; ppl in the queue at the bank
58
what is social facilitation?
psychological phenomenon where the presence of others enhances performance on simple or well-learned tasks but impairs performance on complex or novel tasks.
59
what is Triplett 1989 study on social facilitation?
Observed track cyclists and found performances were faster when:
- Timed alone.
- Timed and racing alongside other cyclists.
= Hypothesised the presence of audience, particularly in a competition, ‘energised’ performance on motor tasks.
Triplett tested his hypothesis using a ‘fishing line’ apparatus and found that children performed better when racing against each other than when alone.
60
what is 'mere presence'?
Allport 1920 on 'social facilitation:
Mere presence = an “entirely passive and unresponsive audience that is only physically present” (Hogg & Vaughan, 2014, p.275)
Improvement in performance due to the mere presence of others as co-actors or passive audience.
Not just humans: Kangaroos, monkeys and horses eat more and run faster when other members of their species are doing the same thing (e.g., Dindo, et al., 2009; Pays, et al., 2009).
61
what is social inhibition?
Social inhibition is the opposite of social facilitation. It refers to the impairment of performance on tasks, especially complex or unfamiliar ones, in the presence of others
62
what is zajonc's (1965) drive theory of social facilitation?
Argued mere presence of others creates an increase in arousal and energises ‘dominant response’:
‘dominant response’ = what's typically done in that situation i.e., a well-learnt/habitual response
When ppl are anxious = tend to do better on easy tasks (already good at) and worse on difficult ones (that they normally struggle at).
If dominant response is correct (easy), then performance will be facilitated.
If the dominant response is incorrect (difficult), then performance will be inhibited.
63
what is the evaluation apprehension theory of social facilitation?
cottrell 1972: effects of the presence of others on individual performance
presence of others causes arousal (and thus influences performance) when those others are perceived as potential evaluators.
It's not just the mere presence of people that matters, but the fear or anxiety of being judged by them
64
what is cottrell et al 1968 experiment to support the evaluation apprehension theory of social facilitation?
experiment to support hypothesis w/ 3 audience conditions:
1) Blindfolded
2) Merely present
3) Attentive audience.
Tasks were well learned (i.e., easy).
= Social facilitation was found when the audience was perceived to be evaluative (attentive); wanting to perform well for their audience worked in their favour.
65
what ia markus 1978 research that does not support the evaluation apprehension theory of social facilitation?
time taken to dress in familiar clothes / unfamiliar clothes (difficult task, lab coat and unfamiliar shoes) as a function of social presence:
3 conditions:
(1) alone.
(2) in presence of an inattentive audience.
(3) in presence of an attentive
audience.
= Inattentive and attentive not much difference in difficult task.
= It seems that evaluation apprehension is sometimes helpful but sometimes unnecessary for social facilitation.
66
what is schmitt et al 1986 research that does not support the evaluation apprehension theory of social facilitation?
asked ppts to type their name or a code backwards on a computer.
= Mere presence of others = ppl perform simple task quicker and difficult task slower.
However, adding in an evaluation apprehension condition made little difference to the typing speed.
= It seems that evaluation apprehension is sometimes helpful but sometimes unnecessary for social facilitation.
67
what is the distraction-conflict theory?
can explain the effect that evaluation apprehension is sometimes unnecessary for social facilitation (worsen performance)
= ppl distracted by what others are doing = perform worse
68
what is siemon 2013 experiment on evaluation apprehension on social facilitation?
examined whether using AI-based idea evaluation led to evaluation apprehension.
Finnish participant presented an idea to either Alan (AI) or Phillip.
ppts express less evaluation apprehension when presenting their idea to Alan (AI) than Phillip.
= The results show that when humans are involved in evaluating an idea, people tend to feel concerned
69
what is the Ringelmann effect?
describes the tendency for individual productivity to decrease as the size of the group performing a task increases
(1913, 1927) found that men pulling on a rope attached to a dynamometer exerted less force than the number of people in the group
70
what are the 2 reasons for the ringelmann effect?
ringelmann 1913, 1927 - tendency for individual productivity to decrease as the size of the group performing a task increases
Coordination loss: as group size inhibits movement, distraction, and jostling.
Motivation loss: participants did not try as hard; less motivated.
71
What is Social Loafing?
Individuals exert less effort when working in a group toward a common goal
= Occurs when people believe their individual contributions are not being monitored or evaluated
72
what is Ingham et al 1974 study on social loafing?
investiagted loss of motivation with 'real groups' and 'pseudo groups' on rope pulling
= found both groups lost motivation, more loss of coordination in real groups
73
what is latané et al 1979 study on social loafing?
supported term (loss of motivation in group) through clapping/shouting/cheering tasks:
Recorded amount of cheering/clapping noise made per person [blind folded] reduced by:
29% in 2-person groups.
49% in 4-person groups.
60% in 6-person groups.
74
what is the output equity explanation for why people loaf (social loafing)?
Output equity:
When people learn others are not pulling their weight, they too can lose motivation and put less effort in.
75
what is the EVALUATION APPREHENSION explanation for why people loaf (social loafing)?
Evaluation apprehension:
Individuals only believe their efforts are being judged when they perform alone; in groups, people are not accountable!
76
what is identifiability as a method of reducing social loafing?
Identifiability:- i.e. when people’s individual contributions to a task can be identified.
e.g. people shout louder in a group shouting task when they think every individual’s volume can be recorded (Williams et al., 1981).
77
what is individual responsibility as a method of reducing social loafing?
Individual responsibility:- i.e. when ppl know they can make a unique contribution to a task
e.g. in a group task, watching for dots on a screen:
- ppl worked harder if they thought they were solely responsible for watching a particular segment vs
If they thought others were watching too, even when no one would know how many dots they personally had spotted (Harkins & Petty, 1982).
78
is social loafing occuring in all groups?
it appears robust across gender, culture and task although effect is smaller from eastern cultures
= perhaps eastern may attach less importance to outcomes such as group harmony etc
79
what is the collective effort model?
explains the conditions under which individuals will exert effort on a collective task:
- they believe their input will have an impact
- completing task = bring them smth they value
80
what did Moscovici and Zavalloni 1969 find out about the effect of group discussions?
= found that group discussions enhanced French students (already) positive towards their president and enhanced their (already) negative attitudes towards Americans.
81
what is group polarisation?
is a phenomenon in social psychology where the initial attitudes of a group of individuals become more extreme after group discussion
82
what is the concept 'groupthink'?
proposed by Janis 1982 after disaster decision by us president JFK + small group of advisors = invasion of cuba
group think = where objections to poor group decisions are suppressed to maintain group harmony
Groupthink is a very specific phenomenon, thought to occur under particular conditions:-
- Stressful situation without a clear, correct solution.
- Cohesive group of like-minded people, cut off from external (moderating) influences.
- Strong, vocal leader.
83
what are the concequences of 'grpup think'?
where objections to poor group decisions are suppressed to maintain group harmony
= The group does not carry out adequate research.
= Alternative options are not considered; group members cascade around the same opinion (Glebovskiy, 2018).
= Risks are not adequately assessed.
84
what is necessary for friendships to form?
-evolution and attraction
-ideals (fletcher et al 2004)
-similarity
-proximity
-familiarity
85
what are the evolutionary factors of attraction (for friendships to form)?
- Reproductive fitness - cues (physical health, youthful appearance, body and facial symmetry)
86
what are the ideals that are searched for to form friendships?
fletcher et al 2004:
- Warmth-trustworthiness
- Vitality-attractiveness
- Status-resources
87
what were Festinger, schachter and back (1950) idea about proximity?
more likely to choose as friends living in same building/floor
88
what is the social penetration theory?
altman and taylor 1973:
idea of self disclosure - sharing intimate info + feelings
= central processes in developing and maintaining relationships
89
what are the two categories of love?
passionate/romantic = intense emotional state, feeling more positive, increase in self-esteem
companionate love = less intense, feelings of friendly affection + deep attachment
90
what is the three factor theory of love?
Hatfield and Walster 1981
- Cultural concept of love
- Appropriate person to love
- Emotional arousal, self-labelled 'love', felt when interacting/thinking about appropriate person
91
what was dutton and aron 1974 study?
- Male ppts crossed either wobbly suspension bridge high over canyon (fear arousing) Or a lower solid bridge above small rivulet (non-fear arousing)
- Attractive female researcher approached, administered questionnaire and gave name + number
Ppts on fear arousing suspension bridge -greater tendency to contact researcher
= physiological arousal can be misattributed to romantic or sexual attraction
92
what is the triangular theory of love?
sternberg 1986:
INTIMACY - feelings of warmth, closeness, connection and sharing
PASSION - drive that leads to romance, physical attraction
COMMITMENT - to maintain relationship
= 'amount' of love experienced depends on absolute strength of the components
= 'type' of love experienced depends on their strengths relative to each other
93
what is the social exchange theory of love?
views social interactions as a series of exchanges
- people are motivated to maximize the benefits and minimize the costs in their relationships.
= it's a cost-benefit analysis of relationships.
94
what is social influence?
"Process whereby attitudes and behaviour are influenced by the real or implied presence of other people”
(Hogg & Vaughan, 2014, p. 236)
95
what is The auto kinetic effect?
The auto kinetic effect is a visual illusion where a stationary, small point of light in an otherwise completely dark or featureless environment appears to move.
96
what is sherif study on how norms develop in small groups AND WHEN?
1936:
Autokinetic effect (point of light appears to move)
Judgements alone or
in groups of 2 / 3
Use judgments of others
as frame of reference
Converge away from individual to
common standard: group norm
97
what is conformity?
rational process - ppl construct norm from others behaviour to determine appropriate behaviour
98
what is asch study on conformity and when?
1951:
asked ppts (7-9ppts per trial), 18 trials, 1 naive ppt, all asked to make judgment of ab,c lines compared to target
= average conformity = 33%
= due to .. self doubt/consciousness, fear etc?
= when judgments anonymous, conformity dropped to 12.5%
99
what is informational influence, and who made proposed this?
deutsch and gerard 1955:
Ambiguous / uncertain situations.
Need to feel confident our perceptions/beliefs/feelings correct.
Influence to accept info from another as evidence about reality.
True cognitive chang
100
whos study is an example of informational influence?
sherifs 1936 : Ambiguous task = uncertainty = use others’ estimates as information to resolve subjective uncertainty
101
what is normative influence, and who made proposed this?
deutsch and gerard 1955:
Need for social approval & acceptance.
Avoid disapproval.
Surface compliance
102
who's study is an example of normative influence?
Aschs 1951 study:
Unambiguous task = go along with group = especially when under surveillance
103
what is minority influence?
= “Social influence processes whereby numerical or power minorities change the attitudes of the majority.” (Hogg & Vaughan, 2014, p.256)
Effective if consistent, not rigid, committed.
104
how do minorities excert influence?
Minority influence produces indirect, private change in opinion; conversion effect as a consequence of active consideration of minority point of view.
105
how do majorities excert influence?
Majority influence produces public compliance via social comparison.
106
what is the "agentic state"?
= mentally absolve of own responsibility and transfer responsibility to person giving order.
107
what is milgrims study?
1963 - on obedience to authority:
Electric shocks to confederate in mock learning study.
People socialised to respect authority of the state.
Agentic state = mentally absolve of own responsibility and transfer responsibility to person giving order.
Incorrect answer = shock; increase by 15volts
108
what are the 4 factors influencing obedience?
- Gradual change and commitment ppts committed to course of action.
- Immediacy of victim: as immediacy increased, obedience decreased.
- Immediacy of authority figure: obedience decreased when experimenter not in room & directions given by telephone.
- Legitimacy of authority figure:
Lab coated experimenter; Yale University.
Reduction when the experiment was conducted in industrial setting.
109
how do stereotypes form?
based around categorisation:
- category = collections of instances that have a family resemblance organised around a prototype
prototypes (theory) = cognitive representation of typical defining features of a category
- standards against which family resemblance is assessed & category membership decided.
110
why do we categorise things in our minds?
- Save cognitive energy.
= Saves time & cognitive processing.
- Clarifies and refines perception of the world.
= Once category is activated - tend to see members as possessing all traits of the stereotype.
= Reducing uncertainty, predict social world.
- Maintain a positive self-esteem.
= Motivational function for social identify & self-concept.
111
what is an illusory correlation?
the phenomenon of perceiving a relationship between two variables (typically events, actions, or characteristics) when no such relationship exists, or when the relationship is much weaker than perceived. This concept plays a significant role in the formation and maintenance of stereotypes.
112
how can negative stereotypes form from illusory correlation?
Negative stereotypes may occur when people inaccurately pair minority groups with negative events/behaviours because they are both distinct:
113
what is hamilton and shermans study on illusory correlations forming stereotypes?
1996:
Asked White American participants to estimate the arrest rate of various types of American.
African Americans were estimated to have a higher arrest rate than they, in fact, did!
African Americans = relative minority
Being arrested = negative and therefore unusual
= illusion that they are correlated
114
what is behavioural assimilation?
an effect of stereotyping: which influence our own behaviour not just our perceptions of others
115
what is stereotype threat?
effect of stereotypes: the threat of negative evaluations can actually lead to poor performance e.g. sinking to the level expected of you when expectations are low
116
name a study on behavioural assimilation as an effect of stereotypes:
bargh et al 1996:
- 'scrambled sentence' task - making sentences out of randomly ordered words
IV = word types (2 condts):
1) 'elderly' = task used words associated w/ elderly stereotypes
2) neutral = words unrelated to age (e.g. thirsty, clean)
DV = ppts directed to the exit and hidden conf timed how long it took them to leave room
= ppts primed w/ 'elderly' = behaved related to stereotype e.g. moved slower
117
what is ... findings on priming stereotypes?
papies 2015:
) found that people who want to become thinner are likelier to make healthy food choices if they are primed, say, with words on a menu such as ‘diet’, ‘thin’ and ‘trim figure’.
But it works only in people for whom a healthy diet is a central goal; it doesn’t make everyone avoid fattening foods.
= people might already need to care about what’s being primed.
118
what is the study on women and maths stereotype threat as an effect of stereotyping?
Women and maths (Spencer, Steele, & Quinn, 1999).
119
what is the study on Men and social sensitivity stereotype threat as an effect of stereotyping?
Men and social sensitivity (Koenig & Eagly, 2005).
120
what is tan and barber study, whats a limitation?
2020n on stereotype threat:
examined whether age-based stereotypes impact older Chinese adults.
T- hey tested older Chinese ppts’ memory recall under a stereotype threat condition (or control condition).
= Results demonstrated poorer memory recall in the stereotype threat condition (vs. control).
However, it should be noted that participants were immigrants residing in the United States.
As shown in other studies, could the effects of stereotype threat be different in Asian participants who still reside in an Asian country (e.g., Zhang et al. 2017)?
121
what was the study on reluctance to help as a feature of discrimination?
Gaetner & Dovidio, 1977:
Participants were more reluctant to help a minority member (than their own group) when faced with an emergency, but only when others were present.
122
what was the study on tokenism as a feature of discrimination?
= Process of favouring a member of a minority group in isolated episodes:
Monin and Miller (2001):
= found that participants who were given the opportunity to hire a well-qualified minority candidate were willing to discriminate against other minorities in future hiring, as they had already “proved” that they were not prejudiced.
123
what is and what was the study on reverse discrimination as a feature of discrimination?
Opening displays pro-minority behaviour but as a way to deflect accusations of prejudice,
e.g., giving more money to a minority member when feeling threatened (Dutton & Lake, 1973).
124
what is modern of symbolic racism?
a theory of subtle prejudice: kinder and sears 1981:
- Blaming the victim.
- Support of policies that all happen to disadvantage racial minorities.
125
what is ambivalent racism?
a theory of subtle prejudice: Katz & Hass, 1988:
- High scores on pro-Black attitudes (pity for the disadvantaged).
- High scores on anti-Black attitudes (hostility toward the deviant).
126
what is ambivalent racism?
a theory of subtle prejudice: (Glick & Fiske 1996):
- Hostile sexism paints women in a negative light.
- Benevolent sexism could be seen as apparently positive.
127
what are the two categories of causes of prejudice?
1) Historical/economical:
Linked to the psychological notion of frustration of aggression.
2) Psychological:
- Individual differences in personality;
- Group processes (such as unequal status).
128
what is the Frustration-aggression hypothesis?
Frustration causes aggression (Dollard et al., 1939):
- ‘Psychic energy’ built up by frustration needs an outlet;
- We find a scapegoat e.g., a minority group.
Linked to the Freudian notion of ‘displacement’
When we get angry, we misdirect our anger.
Also, linked to historical context!
129
what is the evidence for the Frustration-aggression hypothesis?
Hovland and Sears (1940):
Archival study about cotton workers.
Over a fifty year period measured:
Price of cotton;
Number of lynchings of Black workers.
As frustration increased (i.e., price of cotton fell), lynchings increased (displaced aggression).
Evaluation:
Can’t determine cause and effect.
130
what is the authoritarian personality as a cause of prejudice?
Psychological Cause:
‘Authoritarian’ Personality traits:
Extreme reactions to authority figures;
Obsession with rank and status;
Tendency to displace anger.
Related to upbringing:
Harsh parental discipline.
131
what is the evidence for authoritarian personality as a cause of prejudice?
Adorno et al., (1950):
Retrospective interviews about childhood.
Questionnaires monitoring:
Anti-Semitism;
Ethnocentrism;
Political & economic conservatism;
Potential for fascism.
Correlation between the harshness of upbringing and measures of prejudice.
132
what are the Criticisms of the ‘authoritarian personality’ explanation of prejudice?
Problems with supporting evidence: (Adorno et al 1950)
Correlational evidence:
Can’t determine cause and effect.
Poor methodology:
Relies on memory of upbringing;
Not all strict upbringings = ‘fascist’
Self report.
Ignores the social context:
Need to take into account history and culture (Pettigrew, 1958).
133
what is social learning as a cause of prejudice?
Rather than personality, Tajfel (1981) argued that hatred and suspicion of certain groups are learnt (early) in life.
134
what is evidence of social learning as a cause of prejudice?
Barrett and Short (1992):
English children, aged 4-5 years old;
French and Spanish were liked, followed by Italians, and Germans were liked the least.
Parental prejudices:
Modelling (child witness expression of racial hatred);
Conditioning (parents approval of racist behaviour).
135
what is the study on the group process: conformity to prejudice?
Minard (1952):
Investigated attitudes of White miners.
60% would readily switch between racism & non racism depending on whether situational norms encouraged or discouraged prejudice.
Being influenced by a group authority figure?
e.g., 1920s & 30s Germany.
136
what is the social identity theory?
(Turner et al., 1987).
We have a social identity as well as a personal one. Made up of how we categorise ourselves in terms of social groups
Intergroup differentiation:
- ‘in-group’ vs ‘outgroup’.
- Depersonalisation.
In-group bias.
137
what is the Blue eyes/brown eyes demonstration ?
(Hogg & Vaughan, 2011)
School teacher Jane Elliot (1968)
Tried to highlight effects of prejudice to school children:
One day, blue eyed children were ‘inferior’ and had to wear a collar and lost privileges.
Brown eyed children were very quick to derogate those with blue eyes.
138
what was hobbes opinion on human aggression?
(1651):
wrote that extreme levels of aggression are natural for human beings.
139
what is aggression?
'intent to harm' - carison et al 1989
140
how can aggression be measured?
Punching an inflatable (‘Bobo’) doll (Bandura et al., 1963).
Observations from teachers and colleagues (Eron, 1982).
Self reports of aggressive behavior (Leyens et al., 1975).
Self report of willingness to use violence in lab (Geen, 1978).
Selecting spiciness of hot sauce for someone else who does not like spice (Lieberman et al., 1999).
141
what is chermack, berman and taylor 1997 study on aggression?
Subjects competed against “opponent” in a reaction time game
After each trial, the loser received a shock.
2 conditions
- Low provocation - shocks stayed at setting #2
- High provocation - shocks gradually increased from 2 to 9
= high provocation group = more aggressive
142
who found evidence showing a link between gaming and aggression and who found that this effect was small?
Some evidence of a link between gaming and aggression (Anderson & Bushman, 2001),
but the effect is small (Ferguson, 2007).
143
what did Kennedy et al 2014 find about effects of playing violent video games?
found that people who frequently played violent video games were less distracted by violent images in other contexts.
= A phenomenon the study author called “emotion-induced blindness”.
144
145
what is the psychodynamic theory for aggression?
Freud:
Innate ‘death instinct’ (Thanatos).
Thanatos theorised anger is initially directed at self-destruction, but as we develop, becomes directed toward others.
Aggression builds up naturally and must be released
146
what is the Lorenz's ethological perspective and theory on aggression?
Aggression has a ‘survival value’ functional view of aggression.
Dual-factor theory:
Innate urge to aggress (inevitable)
Aggressive behaviour elicited by environmental stimuli (releasers)
Lorenz (1966) mapped this to people (fighting instinct).
i.e., energy builds up and is released on another provocative behaviour of someone else.
147
what is the evolutionary view on aggression?
Aggressive behaviour - evolved to allow to procreate and pass on genes to the next generation.
Social and economic advantage.
e.g., high-flying executives may use aggressive behaviour to fight off colleagues for promotion.
148
what are the limitations of the psychodynamic theory of aggression?
the "death instinct' = Thanatos - self destruction turns into anger directed at others
- limited evidence for the theory
149
what are the limitations of the ethological account of aggression?
Aggression has a ‘survival value’ functional view of aggression.
- struggles to explain the functional value of aggression in humans
= aggressors ofter found punished and excluded
150
what are the limitations of the evolutionary account of aggression?
- Evolutionary account takes limited empirical evidence and claims to use circular reasoning.
- Limited practical application; research has shown that attempts to release aggressive impulses do not work
151
what is the bodo doll study?
Bandura, Ross and Ross (1961):
Children watched an adult playing with ‘Bobo doll’.
3 conditions:
Observed real-life aggressive model (kicking and hitting)
Observed non-aggressive model (played nicely).
Control group - no model
= Children exposed to the aggressive model displayed significantly more aggression.
152
what is the frustration-aggression hypothesis?
Dollard et al 1939:
- aggression results of having goals thwarted
- if target too powerful/unavailable = person displace aggression onto alternative target
= SCAPEGOAT
153
what study supports the frustration-aggression hypothesis?
Barker et al. (1941):
Children are shown a room full of toys:
Initially not allowed to play with them, or
Allowed to play without waiting.
Assessed how children played with toys.
= Frustrated group acted more aggressively:
Smashed toys on the floor.
Threw against the wall.
General destructive behaviour.
154
what study does not support the frustration-aggression hypothesis?
Berkowitz (1962, 1989):
Frustration does not always lead to aggression.
Aversive events.
Negative affect.
Situational cues.
Frustration ill-defined.
155
what is the excitation transfer theory?
zillmans 1979,88 theory of aggression:
Expression of aggression is a function of 3 factors:
1) Learnt aggressive behaviour!
2) Arousal or excitation from another source.
3) The person’s interpretation of the arousal state – such that an aggressive response seems appropriate.
156
what is type a personality in relation to aggression?
Striving to achieve, time urgency, competitiveness & hostility’ (Hogg & Vaughan, 2014; p. 469).
More conflict with peers and subordinates but not superiors (Baron, 1989).
157
what is wilkowski et al study on heats influence on aggression?
Participants were shown images and words commonly associated with heat
= Participants with heat-related words and imagery led participants to perceive neutral facial expressions as aggressive and to have more aggressive thoughts.
158
what evidence shows heat as a factor influencing aggression?
- Wilkowski, et al. 2009 - priming study
- hotter areas have higher violent crime rates, even when controlling for confounding factors (e.g., Anderson, 2001).
- Mares and Moffett (2016) analysed violence data from 60 countries, finding a significant link between heat and violence, particularly in conflict zones.
Their models suggest a 1°C global temperature rise due to the climate crisis could increase homicide rates by up to 6%.
159
what is Klinesmith et als 2006 study on the presence of a weapon as a factor influencing aggression?
Men took part and held a gun or held child’s toy
Measured aggressive behaviour (how much hot sauce to the next person).
= Holding a gun increased aggression
160
what is the study to show alcohol as a factor influencing aggression?
Miller & Parrott, 2010:
- Intoxicated participants behave more aggressively and respond to provocations more strongly.
Also, low aggressors became more aggressive when intoxicated, whereas high aggressors did not
161
what is the study to show narcissism as a factor influencing aggression?
Bushman & Baumeister, 1998:
Participants wrote a pro-life or pro-choice essay on abortion.
Some given negative feedback, such as “This is one of the worst essays I’ve ever read”.
Later, they were asked to deliver blasts of noises to another participant, and they could adjust the level.
= Narcissistic ppts gave the person whom they thought that had criticised their easy louder bursts.
But not other participants.
= Direct aggression at those who threaten their self-image
162
what is the general aggression model?
GAM: comprehensive, integrative framework for understanding human aggression. It considers the role of social, cognitive, developmental, and biological factors in aggression.
163
what is intergroup behaviour?
“Any perception, cognition or behaviour that is influenced by people’s recognition that they and others are members of distinct social groups is intergroup behaviour”.
164
what is relative deprivation?
- sense of having less than we feel entitled to
- perceived gap between expectations or entitlements
- deprivation isnt absolute but relative to other conditions
165
what is collective violence?
acts of violence committed by groups of people against other groups or individuals
Collective violence encompasses various acts, including:
Riots
Ethnic cleansing
Genocide
166
what are the two types of relative deprivation?
Runciman (1966) made distinction between:
1) Egoistic relative deprivation:
- feeling of having less than we feel we are entitled to
- relative to our personal aspirations or to other individuals
2) Fraternalistic relative deprivation:
- sense that our group has less than it is entitled to
- relative to the collective aspirations or other groups
- Associated with social unrest.
167
what is the realistic conflict theory?
sherif 1966:
- where groups compete over scarce resources, intergroup relations become marked by conflict & ethnocentrism arises (Evaluative preference for all aspects of own group relative to other groups)
- nature of goals determines relations:
-mutually exclusive goals between groups -
realistic intergroup conflict and ethnocentrism
-shared (superordinate) goals - cooperation
= reduction in conflict
168
what was sherifs summer camp studies?
in support of the realistic conflict theory:
Four phases:
1) Spontaneous friendship formation
- arrived at camp, engaged in activities
2) In-group and norm formation
- camp divided in 2 - friendships split, groups isolated, developed norms
3) Intergroup competition
- intro of competitive games between groups
=competition + intergroup hostility
= ethnocentric attitudes
3) Intergroup cooperation
- groups provided w/ superordinate goals
- had to work together
= led to reduction in intergroup conflict
NATURE OF GOALS DETERMINE RELATIONS
169
what is a minimal group paradigm?
MGP: Experimental methodology to investigate effect of social categorisation alone on behaviour.
170
what is taijfel et al study on minimal group paradigm?
1971:
MGP: Experimental methodology to investigate effect of social categorisation alone on behaviour.
Assigned ppts to 2 groups (arbitrary selection)
- ppts only knew their own group membership
- Identity of recipients was unknown
- Asked to allocate money to others
In-group favouritism - Despite no history, no self-interest, identity of other members of each group unknown.
171
what is the social identity theory?
“Theory of group membership and intergroup relations based on self-categorisation, social comparison, and the construction of a shared self-definition in terms of in-group defining properties” (Hogg & Vaughan, 2014, p.418)
Social categories provide members with a ‘social identity’ = part of self-concept derived from membership of social groups.
Positive distinctiveness and self-enhancement
172
what is the issue with the realistic conflict theory?
- Existence of super-ordinate goals gradually reduces intergroup hostility and conflict.
BUT:
Superordinate goals: problem if fail to achieve = Unsuccessful intergroup cooperation may worsen IG relations if failure attributed to out-group.
173
what is the contact hypotheses as a way to improve intergroup relations?
(Allport, 1954):
“Bringing members of opposing social groups together will improve intergroup relations and reduce prejudice & discrimination” (Hogg & Vaughan, 2014, p.441).
Conditions for contact (Allport, 1954):
- Should be prolonged & involve cooperative activity.
- Contact between people or groups of equal social status.
- Should occur within framework of official and institutional support for integration.
174
what is prosocial behaviour?
-behaviour/acts that are positively valued by society
- “Behaviour that has positive social consequences & contributes to the well-being of another person" (Hogg & Vaughan, 2014, p.502).
175
what is altruism?
- Act to benefit other rather than self, performed without expectation of personal gain, can be costly.
176
what are the 4 main explanations as to why people help others?
1) Evolutionary perspective
2) Learning to be helpful
3) Social norms
4) Empathy-altruism hypothesis
177
what is kin selection?
Kin selection is an evolutionary strategy where individuals favor the reproductive success of their relatives, even at a cost to their own survival and/or reproduction.
178
what is the contemporary Darwinian models of evolution perspective on pro-social behaviour?
Evolutionary success - survival of one’s genes in subsequent generations:
* Existence of prosocial tendencies in humans because of:
1. “Genetically based predispositions to act prosocially
2. The evolutionary success of people who displayed such predispositions”
179
what is the kin selection model of evolution perspective on pro-social behaviour?
* Evolutionary benefit in terms of inclusive fitness to those who help relatives.
* Humans more inclined to help relatives than unrelated individuals (Barrett et al., 2002).
* Burnstein et al. (1994):
* Tendency to help people who varied in kinship in two conditions: healthy vs. sick, everyday vs. life-or-death situations.
* More willing to help closer kin than more distant kin.
* More likely to help people who were healthy rather than sick in life-or-death situations; more likely to help people who were sick than healthy in everyday situations.
180
what is the evolutionary perspective on pro-social behaviour related to reciprocal altruism?
- Helping others increases the likelihood that they will help us.
- Reciprocity - benefits that may add to evolutionary success - increases status and reputation in community.
181
what is the 'learning to be helpful' explanation for pro-social behaviour?
- Observational learning/modelling
- Using reinforcement: acts that are rewarded are more likely to be repeated
182
what is the social norms explanation for pro-social behaviour?
- Reciprocity principle – “We should help those who help us”.
- Social Responsibility – “We should help people who are dependent and in need, without regard to future exchanges”.
183
what is the empathy-altruism hypothesis?
explanation for pro-social behaviour:
Batson et al 1987,1991,1997
Imagining how you would feel à personal distress à egoistic motivation to reduce personal distress.
184
what is the Kitty Genovese murder?
lady murdered on way home at night
- no one helped, despite 38 ppl admitting to hearing the screaming
= example of bystander effect
185
what is the bystander effect?
* People less likely to help in an emergency when they are with others than when alone.
186
what is the bystander intervention?
* Individual breaks out of role of a bystander & helps another.
187
what is the COGNITIVE MODEL OF BYSTANDER INTERVENTION?
Latané and Darley 1970:
1) notice incident
2) interpret the incident
3) accept personal responsibility for helping
4) decide what can be done
= help?
188
what are the processes that contribute to bystander apathy?
- diffusion of responsibility
- audience inhibition
- social influence
