Social Psychology

Question 1

Describe the early individualistic idea of violent group behaviour

Answer 1

Firstly, supported by <b>Allport (1924) </b>who claimed that you can explain crowd behaviour in an individual sense. Violence is due to the expression of individuals attributes. To resolve problems, need to tend to individuals.<br></br><br></br><b>Hogg (1987)</b> - Conceptualised the crowd with molecule metaphor. Properties of the whole group emerge from relations between the building blocks (group members).

Question 2

What are the problems with individual factors accounting for violent group behaviour?

Answer 2

<div>- How an individual behaves in crowds can be different.</div>

<div><div>- Each individual can represent the whole to themselves</div> <div>- Looking at individuals/ inter-individual relations says nothing on this.</div></div>

<div><br></br></div>

Question 3

Describe the pathology idea of violent group behaviour

Answer 3

Claimed by <b>McDougall (1921)</b> - All norms, conscious self-awareness and responsibility, are removed.<br></br><br></br><b>Le Bon (1986)</b> - Individual self control is removed. Primitive instricts take over which causes barbaric behaviour. <br></br><br></br>Main ideas<br></br>- Loss of conscious rationality (cannot control)<br></br>- Emotional contagion - Easily able to pass on behaviour in crowds, involving lots of people.<br></br>- Unpredictable<br></br>-Compared to Allport, acknowledges that how we behave as individuals is different to how we behave in crowds. Mostly negative.

Question 4

What are the problems with Le Bon’s ideas on violent crowd behaviour?

Answer 4

• It assumes that crowd behaviour has a fixed set of being nasty when there are many peaceful crowd examples.<br></br>- Reduces conflict to innate psychological characteristics<br></br>- Doesn’t suggest who will join as he suggests that everyone will, but it has been shown that the police do not join in. Suggests that people must identify with crowd to join.<br></br>- Assumes group members are anon, but are known to other group member. Question if they really lose their sense of self.

Question 5

What is Zimbardo’s Evidence of Deindividiaution

Answer 5

90% of the time when victims of battle were killed or tortured, it was by warriors who had first changed their appearance and deindividuated themselves.<br></br><br></br>Gives you a sense of anonymity, can fuel violence and produce certain negative behaviours.

Question 6

What are examples of evidence supporting deindividiaution?

Answer 6

<b>Festinger et al. (1952)</b> - Less identifiable participants were, more negative when discussing feelings towards parents. <br></br><br></br><b>Singer et al. (1965)</b> - Dressed in lab coats, used more obscene language when discussing erotic literature than anons.<br></br><br></br><b>Zimbardo (1970)</b> - Those dressed in hoods and robes delivered higher shocks than those who were not anon.<br></br><br></br><b>Diener et al. (1976)</b> - Anon leader on halloween stole sweets from houses, other children more likely to join in.

Question 7

Diener (1980) - Deindividuation approach to crowds

Answer 7

At the low end of self-awareness, people do not self-monitor, think of norms, plan actions, guide behaviour by immediate cues and emotions. <br></br><br></br>Feel less responsibility for events due to low self-awareness.

Question 8

What are the issues with deindividuation?

Answer 8

• Unclear on causes - Why does it cause us to behave in violent ways in some contexts and not in others<br></br>- Unclear in characteristics - Different patterns of events<br></br>- Unclear on why we lose identity, Why are some people drawn in and why are some people not.<br></br>- Assumes that when we lose our identity, we won’t have an identity at all. Is this the case?<br></br>- No consideration of other group identities we have.

Question 9

Reicher (1984) - Shared identity approach to crowds and violence escalation

Answer 9

Art (assumed to be anti) and science students (assumed to be pro-visisection).<br></br><br></br>Anonymous in-group condition - more expression for pro-vivisection opinions than when anonymous in individual condition. Suggesting that where group membership is salient, anonymity leads to increased conformity to group norms.<br></br><br></br>Contradicting the idea when lose identity when anonymous.

Question 10

Fogelson (1971) Crowd Behaviour as Normative Behaviour

Answer 10

US disturbances in the 1960s<br></br><br></br>Wasn’t just out of control, mindful considerations and patterns in what was destroyed.

Question 11

Reicher (1984, 1987)

Answer 11

There were limits to targets, only police as believed being treated unfairly by police. <br></br><br></br>Only those who found St Paul’s important to them participated. <br></br><br></br>Out of 16 locally owned shops, 4 damaged. All 8 outsider owned shops were damaged. Suggests a selective, strong pattern. Those owned by locals in community were protected, but outside ones were damaged.<br></br><br></br>Geographical limits - Police chased out of st pauls, but pursued out of district.<br></br><br></br>Shows that individuals don’t lose identity, but that there is a shift in identification from individual to group. Wanted to protect community from unfair treatment.

Question 12

Sherif (1949, 1954)

Answer 12

Summer camp studies - Argues that competition for scarce resources leads to conflict. Prejudice quickly emerges in the group with 93% of friendships being in-group.<div><br></br></div><div>Rober’s Cave Study - Friendship choices went from 93% to 63%. Stereotypes changed, saw the other group as more like ‘us’.</div><div><br></br></div><div>Highlights the power of categorisation and context. Group memberships shape the understanding of context.</div><div><br></br></div>

Question 13

Reicher, Haslam and Rath (2008)

Answer 13

Five-Step Social Identity Model of the Development of Collective Hate:<br></br>1) cohesive ingroup;<br></br>2) exclusion of outgroup targets;<br></br>3) threat to ingroup identity;<br></br>4) virtue;<br></br>5) celebration of inhumanity as protecting virtue.

Look at example of Holocaust.

• In-group identity defined to exclude minority as out-group. Jews as non-Germans.
• Minority seen as a threat to in-group values. Jews seen as out-of-place.
• Led to mobilisation of hate

Question 14

Reicher et al. (2006)

Answer 14

Looking at mobilising hate.<div><br></br></div><div>Bulgarian authorities deported non-Bulgarian jews. Bulgarian’s seen as in-group and in-group inclusion goes against values. Created the in-group norm that deporting would harm values.</div><div><br></br></div><div>Group identity can be a basis for mobilising hate and solidarity. Social categorisation is important.</div>

Question 15

Van Rijswijk, Hopkins, & Johnston (2009)

Answer 15

Social categorisation and perceived identity threat. Characterising them. <div><br></br></div><div>Neutral vs catholic reps of Poland.</div><div><br></br></div><div> Protestant participants. Manipulated salience of Poland’s Catholicism. Polish immigrants seen more as an identity threat.History important,</div>

Question 16

Wakefield et al. (2011)

Answer 16

How identity affects behaviour.<div><br></br></div><div>Ethnic vs civic conception of a nation’s identity affects the degree to which an individual accesses the benefits associated with in-group membership.

Civic = Citizenship
Ethnic = Where from originally

Participants given extract on winner of Scots of the year. One condition had names seen as Scottish, other was not.

Judgements of the individual of Chinese heritage when described in ethnic terms were less accepted. Shows that it depend on how define in-group, Impacts treatment of others.

</div><div><br></br></div><div>Study 2+3 - When wearing a Scottish shirt, a civic definition of Scottish identity increased the target’s perceived Scottishness and increased helping.

When Scotland defined in civic terms, Scottish judged a Chinese-heritage target as more Scottish than in the ethnic condition

</div><div><br></br></div><div>Different definitions of ‘us’ impacts upon who is listened to and helped. It can easily be manipulated.<br></br></div>

Question 17

Guendelman et al. (2011)

Answer 17

Looking at identity threat and dietary choices among US immigrant groups.<div><br></br></div><div>Immigrants ate more than 182 calories, will face health consequences in order to fit in.</div><div><br></br></div><div>When asked if they speak English and their identity is under threat, they are more likely to pick more American food.</div>

Question 18

What is social identity theory?

Answer 18

Theory proposed by Tajfel and Turner which proposes that people belong to social groups and dervive a social identity from these groups.

Question 19

What is the history behind the idea of contact within social psychology?

Answer 19

Contact theory by<b>Allport (1954) -</b>Bringing groups together under conditions of cooperation, equal status and friendship can improve attitudes and lead to harmony. Prejudice happens as ignorant of each other. Important bc theory is the basis of contact research. <div><br></br></div><div>Supported by<b> Pettigrew and Tropp (2006)</b> - Contact allows knowledge and positive interactions.</div><div><br></br></div><div><b>Levine & Hogg (2010) </b>- Contact results in anxiety. Afraid of being prejudice. Anxiety causes individuals to avoid contact, further developing inter-group attitudes. Positive contact can reduce anxiety.</div><div><br></br></div><div>Friendship - <b>Stangor et al. (1996)</b> - American exchange students who had more contact with host country had positive attitudes.</div>

Question 20

How is contact impacted by cognitive processes resulting in stereotypes remaining unchanged?

Answer 20

Cognitive processes result in stereotype disconfirming information explained away.<div><br></br></div><div><b>Johnston and Hewstone (1992)</b> - Easier if stereotype-disconfirming information is contained in one individual. When more dispersed/random, contact is more effective.</div><div>Concentrated disconfirming info led to more subtyping (cognitive process).</div>

Question 21

How is contact impacted by the psychological factor of informal segregation?

Answer 21

Contact is hard to arrange. Natural tendency for informal segregation.<div><br></br></div><div><b>Sherif(1966)</b> argued that simple contact did not improve intergroup relations. As members could avoid contact in certain ways, it was an opportunity for them to attack each other. Recommended goal interdependence - process of bringing together, requiring engagement.</div><div><br></br></div><div><b>Clack et al. (2005)</b>- Looked at patterns of racial/ethnic self-segregation in English multi-ethnic cafeteria. Contact must take into account the everyday mundane contexts. Over 50% would have to relocate to create distribution of no segregation.</div><div><br></br></div><div>Solving this issue difficult. Humans have a natural tendency to only contact in-group members.</div><div><br></br></div>

Question 22

How is contact impacted by the psychological factor of place related identities?

Answer 22

Contact occurs in place/space that has a psychological significance. Not just containers for interaction.<div><br></br></div><div><b>Dixon and Durrheim (2003)</b> - Beach segregation. Desegreation is transforming places to spaces of fear. Whites left when blacks reached a certain density. Contact associated with a sense of loss. White south Africans associated beach with relaxing. However, desegreation turning into a place of fear. Sense of loss.</div><div>Beach appeared diverse, but whites leaving once blacks reached a certain density.</div><div><br></br></div><div>Groups may have contact in places, however still segregaed and contact faciliating negative attitudes and feelings.</div>

Question 23

How is contact impacted by the psychological factor of the salience of group memberships in contact encounters?

Answer 23

<u><b>Decategorisation</b></u><div>Recommended by <b>Brewer and Miller (1984). </b>Proposes focusing on individuals as individuals rather than group members helpign to reducing negative attitudes. But generalisation needs category salience.</div><div><br></br></div><div><b>Voci & Hewstone (2003)</b> - Prejudice attitudes to immigrants in Italy. Contact associated with reduced anxiety and positive out-group attitudes when group salience was high.</div><div><br></br></div><div><u><b>Recategorisation</b></u></div><div>The process of ‘us’ and ‘them’ becoming we (<b>Gaertner et al., 1989</b>). Intergroup bias and conflict can be reduced by transforming group representations to a more inclusive superordinate group through emphasising communalities, contact facilitating a sense of commonality.</div><div><br></br></div><div>However, it could undermine sub-ordinate group identities. Shown by <b>Hornsey & Hogg (2000)</b> - humantities and science students. Commonality emphasising condition produced higher levels of inter-group bias than one looking at separate group identities.<br></br></div><div><br></br></div><div><u><b>Dual Identities</b></u></div><div>2 identities at the same time. One superordinate and one subordinate.</div><div><b>Glasford and Davidio (2011)</b> - Effective as minority members motivated to contact majority to enhance greater intergroup harmony, but majority must welcome the subordinate.</div>

Question 24

Explain the minority perspectives on contact

Answer 24

Important bc have an impact on policy support and social change.<div><br></br></div><div><b>Dixon et al. (2007)</b> - Survey on Black South Africans. More positive interaction with whites associated with less black support for social policies changing inequality.</div><div><br></br></div><div><b>Saguy et al. (2009)</b> - 2 studies. Minorities fail to recognise inequality. Those in positive contact condition had positive inter-group attitudes and paid less attention to inequalities. Low power group expected more fairness after positive contact due to more positive attitudes. Unrealistic expectations.</div><div>Mixed contact can bring groups togerher and get rid of social inequalities, but does not always lead to intergroup equality.</div>

Question 25

Describe the importance of categorisation and social identity within the escalation of conflict in crowds

Answer 25

Reicher (1996) 

London students protest, quickly became violent between police and protestors, not meant to be violent.

Interview shows that there was a change in perception of the crowd at beginning compared to end. Beginning = Different groups within the crowd e.g. friend groups. During conflict = 

Unified group instead of multiple groups, no doubt what group belonged to. Shows a change in perception and identity. 

Police and students saw own behaviour as reasonable, others as unreasonable. 

Shows that how we categorise ourselves is important.

Own violence explained by self-defence, violent behaviour not explained by loss of control, but because of the dynamics of the interaction of groups.

Question 26

Describe the police perspective in regards to the escalation of crowd conflict

Answer 26

Stott and Reicher (1996)

- Police perspectives on crowd behaviour, training and interviews

- Their views support Allport - Some attracted to crowds bc are troublemakers

- Support Le Bon - In a crowd, people just follow others.

- Police assume everyone a troublemaker, everyone of interest, quickly change. 

- See them as dangerous which is why force is used.

- Certain expectations of police, responsibility, what they wear.

Question 27

How does the elaborated social identity model explain for how violence escalates in crowds?

Answer 27

Druy et al. (2005, 2006)

4 steps proposed

1. Hetereogenous crowd - must be some conflict

2. Police see crowd as dangerous, act certain way

3. Group members see police action as illigetimate and form a homogenous crowd united in opposition to the police.

4. United crowd feel empowered to challenge the police, want to do something. This challenge confirms the police's perceptions of crowd as being dangerous.

Shows that the reaction by police helps to make identity stronger. Have power to act on perceptions. This power causes crowd to act certain way.

Also needs to be asymmetry between the way the crowd members see themselves and how they are treated by the police. 

Doesn't need to be history behind a group to facilitate crowd action, it is the outcome of an intergroup dynamic.

Question 28

Describe the long-term consequences of crowd violence

Answer 28

Drury et al. (2003) 

- Anti-road protests, an environmental protest.

- Empowerment creates a collective self-objective

- Protestors began to identify with wider social movements. Sense of empowerment associated with longer term changes.

Question 29

Introduction - Social Categorisation and Groups

Answer 29

Social categorisation is the cognitive representation of a social group. Have hierarchical relationships. Individuals assign others to categories on the basis of their prototype. This is the typical features a member of a social category should have. The closer they are, the more prototypical they are. Smith and Zarante (1992) - You can assign people to categories based on how similar they are to the category exemplar which is people they have encountered before.

Question 30

Describe the accentuation effect within social categorisation

Answer 30

Used by individuals to distinguish between those who belong and those who do not belong. Tendency to exaggerate similarities and differences between categories. Tajfel and Wilkes (1963) - Judge length of objects, accurate answers. Next condition, objects presented within circles acting as categories. Answers not accurate. Shows that people have a tendency to exaggerate similarities and diffs between groups.

Question 31

What are examples to highlight the fluidity of social categorisation?

Answer 31

Doise, Dechamps & Meyer (1978) asked Swiss participants to judge the members of 3 diff social groups by rating them in terms of characteristic traits. - Condition 1 = Italian Swiss, French Swiss and German Swiss. Groups seen as having diff characteristics from one another and all separate entities. - Condition 2 = Italian Swiss, French Swiss and Germans. Italian Swiss and French Swiss seen as similar and different. As soon as the Germans entered the context, individuals recategorized groups and seen differences. Haslam et al. (1992) - asked Australian participants to judge national groups using traits. - Condition 1, only Americans were judged. Described as being rather aggressive. - Condition 2 - both Americans and Russians were judged. Shift in perception which depended on the context as Americans described as being very aggressive whereas Russians were described as not being aggressive.

Question 32

How does helping show that how people are treated depends on their social categorisation?

Answer 32

Levine et al. (2005) - Participants were Man U supporters. - Confederate wears either Man U or rival top and falls in pain. - When wearing Man U shirt, help in-group member. Not much help to rival. - Common fan identity condition - Helped football fans the same amount, but little help to plain top. - Shows that social identity does matter in helping behaviour. People more likely to help in-group. They receive different treatment from outgroup members.

Question 33

Describe the concept of group identification

Answer 33

Difference between group membership and group identification. Not all groups important. Feel emotionally connected to a group, consider it an important part of our sense of self. Groups we identify with give us social identity. Allow us to distinguish between us and them. Low group identification = Perceive other group members as different, no sense of us. High group identification = Individual feels similar to other group members. Sense of us. Social psychs believe that it may fulfil a psychological motive.

Question 34

Describe the psychological group identification motive of self-esteem

Answer 34

Luhtanen and Crocker (1992) - Positively valued ingroup a source of collective self-esteem, positive regard for ingroup as a whole. Higher within collectivist cultures, individuals place emphasis on importance of interconnectedness. Source of personal self-esteem, positive regard for the individual self. Pursued in individualistic societies where ppl socialised to focus on enhancement of the individual self. Tajfel and Turner (1986) - Individuals want to be in a group of high status and prestige and to compare the in-group with the outgroup

Question 35

Describe the psychological group identification motive of distinctiveness

Answer 35

Breakwell (1986) - Humans have a desire to appear unique. Highlighting the diffs between self and others is an important aspect of self-definition. Allows an indv to know they are are. Need to know how differ from others. Identifying with group makes an indv feel unique as similar to some ppl and diff to others. Marking the boundaries between 'us' and 'them'. Many identity markers used to emphasise differences between groups and maintain group distinctiveness.

Question 36

Describe the psychological group identification motive of the need to belong

Answer 36

Indvs have a need to belong, feel connected, part of something meaningful. Group identity provides a reassuring sense of inclusion. Universal feeling for all humans as without this, existence would feel meaningless. Knowles and Gardner (2008) - Participants wrote about time of rejection, others wrote about acceptance. They rated the perceived cohesiveness and importance of groups. Those who thought about rejection saw groups as more cohesive and united than those who thought about acceptance. People are primed with social rejection in order to be part of a meaningful group.

Question 37

Describe the psychological group identification motive of the need for self-continuity

Answer 37

The self is experienced as a continuous entity. We have a notion of who we are right now and who we are going to become. Having a sense of this is good for having stable MH. Chandler et al. (2003) - Adolescents who have a marked inner sense of personal continuity have higher levels of wellbeing than those who feel more discontinuous. Reicher and Hopkins (2000) - Social identity is a powerful source of continuity as it links a person to groups that extend through time. Interconnected to symbolic immortality

Question 38

Describe the psychological group identification motive of the motive to achieve symbolic immortality

Answer 38

Symbolic immortality is a form of immortality based on the symbolic continuation of the self across time. Groups can be seen as persistent entities through time and so may allow members to satisfy a need for symbolic immortality. Through group identification, indvs may become parts of entities seen to be immune to the corrosion of time. Protecting themselves from the terror from the fear of death. Sani et al. (2009) - Spanish Students - One condition - Made mortality salient in the mind, describe what happens when you die. Should have higher group identification. - Control - Describe what will happen when take an exam. Exams raise anxiety - Then did a task to forget about above. - Found that those in the mortality salient condition strongly identified with a group as they used it as a form of defence. Interconnected to self-continuity

Question 39

Describe the psychological group identification motive of uncertainty reduction

Answer 39

Individuals have low tolerance for uncertainty about social reality and so group membership is an effective way to get rid of it. Groups which have high entitativity are better suited for uncertainty reduction as provide clear norms and unambiguous social identities. Do this by - Describing who we are and how we should behave - Provide consensual validation for our perceptions and feelings.

Question 40

Explain how leaders show themselves as prototypical

Answer 40

Self-categorisation theory conceptualises the leader as the in-group prototype. Leader needs to show as much of the shared social identity as possible. Reicher & Hopkins (1996) - To become a leader, indv must convince the group and be perceived as a true group prototype. - Once successful, they can define and shape group identity as seen as qualified to indicate the correct group norms. Persuade members that new norms are consistent with the group identity. Results in transformation of group identity.

Question 41

Explain how leaders know how to capitalise on social identity processes

Answer 41

Reicher and Haslam (1996) - If leaders wish to restructure the group, they might do this by arguing that it is best for categorisation, Haslam (2004) - A leader struggling to be recognised as prototype may use the 'us' vs 'them' rhetoric and show outgroup hostility to reinforce their position. Hollander (1995) - For groups to function effectively, leader needs to be aware of the group members needs.

Question 42

Describe the study of Sherif (1936) in discussing social influence in groups

Answer 42

Participants judge how far a dot of light moved (was stationary). Two conditions When participants came together after being alone - Gradually go from making their own judgements to influencing each other. Converge to a group norm. When participants together and then alone - Make different judgements first and then similar. When alone gave same judgement. Shows that social reality had been socially constructed. Shows how group norms are formed. We are dependent on the norms established by others. When uncertain, people rely upon others to resolve uncertainty so shared norms can be created. Creating uncertainty is the core basis of social influence.

Question 43

Describe the study of Asch (1955) in discussing social influence

Answer 43

Participants went round table and specified if line matched reference line. When alone = 99% gave correct answer When in a group = 36% of answers wrong. 76.4% of participants gave the wrong answer at least once. Shows that the conform to majority. Shows how much of an influence social groups can have. Creating uncertainty is the core basis of social influence.

Question 44

Describe the study of Mocovici, Lage and Naffrechoux (1969) in discussing social influence

Answer 44

Reversed Asch's experiment to show minority influence. More naive participants than confederates. Judge colour of disc. - 32% of naive participants answered green at least once. - No confederates - 1% of naive gave wrong answer - When minority was not consistent - 2% of naive wrong. Shows that consistent individuals are more likely to influence the group. Consistency shows confidence. Minorities can also have an influence. Phase 2 shows that minority influence is different to majorities as it is more gradual over time.

Question 45

Describe the study of Abrams et al. (1986) in discussing social influence

Answer 45

Those who disagree with majority will fail to create uncertainty unless seen as an ingroup member. Disagreeing with ingroup makes us feel uncertain. Two conditions - ingroup and outgroup. ``` Ingroup = Naive participant tends to conform to majority Outgroup = Participant makes independent and correct judgements. ```

Question 46

Describe the study of David and Turner (1999) in discussing social influence

Answer 46

Intergroup Situation = Minority of radical feminists and majority of moderate feminists. Moderate feminists reject policy statement. Ingroup = Radical feminists and moderate feminists aware of anti-feminists and so the moderate accept the policy statement. Shows that it depends on how the group is perceived. Flexibility of social identity, based on context.

Question 47

Describe the study of Levine and Thompson (2004)

Answer 47

British students specify how likely they would be to help following a natural disaster. European Identity Condition - Made salient by showing EU flag on questionaire. More likely to help in this condition. British Identity Condition - Salient by showing British Union flag. Less likely to help. Buchan et al. (2011) - Showed that those who identify with the whole world community can be more likely to help. Those with a higher identification score more concerned with global issues.

Question 48

Introduction - Social Identity and Health Behaviour

Answer 48

Social identity is an individuals sense of who they are based on their group membership (Tajfel, 1979). Morrison & Bennett (2006) - Describe health behaviour as 'behaviour that is somehow associated with one's health status, irrespective of current health or motivations' Indvs who identify with a group holding specific health behavioural norms will tend to comply. Some groups more neutral and others strongly endorse them. Someone who more strongly identifies with a group is more likely to comply with health behaviour norms. Many people engage in risky health behaviour, why is this?

Question 49

Cruwys et al. (2012)

Answer 49

Social identity & health behaviour. Popcorn study. Whether or not you are part of a group has different implications. Outgroup + ingroup university. Participants encounter confederate wearing ingroup or outgroup university jumper. Say that they either ate all of the popcorn or didn't eat any. Participant provided with full popcorn container to watch video. Outgroup Condition - Doesn't matter what confederate said as consumption the same. Ingroup Condition - Did have an influence on eating behaviour. Ate all popcorn when confederate said they did, ate less when confederate ate less. Shows that other ppl can account for health behaviour, but only ingroup.

Question 50

Sani et al. (2015) - Social identity and health behaviour.

Answer 50

Investigated link between group life and health. Numb of intensive contact and group identifications. Completed questionnaire to determine how much they identified with group. Contact measured by numb of conversations and events attended within a week. Individuals with no group identifications = 28.9% did not exercise once a week compared to those with 3 group identifications where 7.4% did not exercise once a week. Greater impact from group identification than contact, shows that group identification does matter for health behaviour, not about intensity of contact, but how an individual feels about group.

Question 51

Schofield, Pattison, Hill and Borland (2001)

Answer 51

Social identity and health behaviour. Smoking behaviour was a favourable norm in the group. Impact stronger on those who identified with the group rather than low identifiers. The more smoking is seen as normal, the more likely an individual is to do it. Effects vary depending on identification.

Question 52

Stewart-Knox et al. (2005)

Answer 52

Social identity and health behaviour. Investigated reasons for taking up smoking in adolescents in NI. Peer group influenced smoking uptake. Not due to direction persuasion, but children wanting to conform the normative behaviour of the peer group they identified with. Wanted to comply with group norms.

Question 53

Haslam et al. (2014)

Answer 53

Social identity and health behaviour Many elderly isolated, but many keep socialising. Said to be beneficial for cognitive ageing. Found that individuals who participated within a lot of groups can have a cognitive age up to 10 years less than those who do not participate in many groups. Reason - Group participation provides individuals with a sense of purpose and direction.

Question 54

Describe how social identity influences perception and response to symptoms

Answer 54

Social psychologists argue that an important way in which our psychology affects symptom perception is through social identity. Influence severity. St Claire and He (2009) - Asked elderly about levels of hearing. Those who thought of themselves as older were more likely to report hearing issues than those who thought of themselves in individual traits. Shows that a person with an illness with identify with the group suffering from that illness and conform to symptoms believed to be normative of group membership.

Question 55

Livingstone et al. (2011)

Answer 55

Social identity and health behaviour UK uni students. Heavy drinking the norm. Greater identification with the group of UK uni students was associated with higher drinking intentions.

Question 56

How can social identity positively influence health outcomes?

Answer 56

Platow et al. (2007) - Less pain felt when putting hand in bucket of ice when received support from in-group member. Haslam, Jetten and Waghorn (2009) - Higher team identification predicted lower likelihood to experience burnout during stressful parts of team production. Identification facilitated social support. Support is seen as more genuine from an ingroup member than support from outgroup.

Question 57

Introduction - Social Identity and Mental Health

Answer 57

Mental health is one of the largest concerns facing individuals at this moment in time. 1 in 7 individuals in the UK are said to be on anti-depressants. Between 1998 and 2010 there has been an increase in the number of psychiatric drugs from 18 million to 45 million. This is a huge increase within 12 years and has led to questions on why this is occurring. Between the 1950 and 1980s, the number of teens who agreed that 'life is a strain for me much of the time' quadrupled. Mental health ties in with physical health and can have implications. Depressed people are 4x likely to develop a heart attack than those with no history of the illness. There is a wide view held that we are social beings who cannot live in isolation. It is essential in our nature to communicate. Isolation from groups can make individuals suffer and experience mental distress. Looking at peoples accounts of living with depression shows that they do not feel connected and feel detached from groups. Group identification is crucial for protecting against MH issues.

Question 58

Wakefield, Bickley & Sani (2013)

Answer 58

Social identity and MH. Investigating group identification for MS suffers with a support group. 10.3% of those who identified were depressed compared to 30.3% of those who did not identify with group. Groups are not always useful as ppl may fail to identify with the group. Shows that identification is crucial. It won't do much for depression if don't identify, only benefit if identify.

Question 59

Cietanni et al. (2017)

Answer 59

Social identity and MH. Looking at group identifications and degree of severe psychological distress in Scottish. 0 group identifications = 34.9% experienced distress 3 group identifications = 1.2% experience distress If connected to group, less likely to suffer from severe form of distress. Opposite of depression is connectedness. Group identification is the most important predictor of distress, more than other factors.

Question 60

Sani et al. (2012) - Social identity and MH

Answer 60

Polish family study. - Looking at family identification, social contact, depression and education. - Those with more contact with family were more likely to identify. Stronger identification led to less symptoms. - Contact not sufficient itself, need a sense of belonging. Army Unit Study - Social contact didn't predict depression. Identification matters more. - Stronger identification led to lower levels of depression, more satisfied

Question 61

Sani et al. (2015) - Social identity and MH

Answer 61

Large sample size, in Scotland. Contact and social identify measured, depression indicators (MDI and GP searched to see if they had anti-depressants before). No group identifications - 44.6% depressed on the MDI scale. 20.4% issued anti-depressants 1 Group Identification - 17.1% depressed, 12.7% on anti-depressants 3 Group Identification - 2.4% depressed, 6.9% on anti-depressants. Gradient shown. Number of identifications predicts depression. Contact 0 Contact intensive groups - 12.5% depressed, 11,6% on anti-depressants 3 contact intensive groups - 2.3% depressed, 8% on anti-depressants - Contact facilitates attachment and belonging. Weaker predictor than identification.

Question 62

Miller et al. (2015)

Answer 62

Social identity and MH. Confirms Sani et al. (2015). Scottish HS children. 0 group identifications = 71.1% psychological distress 3 = 17.0% psychlological distress Clear gradient. As identification increases, the odds of suffering from distress are lower.

Question 63

Cruwys et al. (2014)

Answer 63

Social identity and MH. Focus on membership rather than identification. Group membership predicts depression 6 yrs later. More group memberships led to lower depression symptoms. Those who have history of depression and join groups are more likely to show an improvement. Important to engage in group life more than those who don't have history. Those who had no group memberships in both years were more likely to relapse. Greater group memberships protects non-depressed from developing depression and increases recovery from depression in depressed. Is a social curer for the long-term.

Question 64

What are the implications of looking at group identification and mental health

Answer 64

Health professionals should encourage those with MH issues to join programs aimed at connecting with groups they can identify with. Good for those who don't want to take medication, find psychotherapy unhelpful, socially isolated.

Question 65

Describe what meta-stereotypes are

Answer 65

A person's belief regarding the stereotype that outgroup members hold about his or her own group. Related to own experiences and is more subtle.

Question 66

Wakefield (2012)

Answer 66

Everyday interactions. Task to solve 10 anagrams in 10s, impossible. Then had opportunity to seek help on ones they couldn't solve. Interrupted by experimenters phone call. Plumber in flat. No stereotype condition - Impatient personality Dependency Stereotype Condition - Males belief that women need men's help. Measured level of help. Metasteretypes of women as dependent affect help seeking behaviour. When made salient, less likely to seek help on complex task.

Question 67

Describe the personality approach to prejudice

Answer 67

Adorno et al. (1950) - Idea of authoritarian personality which is prone to prejudice and stereotyping. However, this fails to account for situational and cultural influences. Siegel & Siegel (1957) - Surroundings affect attitudes. Looked at different housing areas. More conservative areas were more authoritarian.

Question 68

Describe emergent norm theory

Answer 68

Turner and Killian (1972) argue that a crowd is just an extreme form of a group. Only diff is that groups have history. Theory that norms which emerge influence the behaviour of those involved and some individuals are more prominent than others. Individualistic account. Problems with this - Doesn't explain why norms spread so rapidly - Diff between a crowd and group - Claims that norms are determined by a few individuals, but doesn't explain why people follow.

Question 69

Introduction - Intergroup Relations

Answer 69

Prejudice - Preconceived negative judgement of a group and its individual members. Allport - 'ill thinking of others without sufficient warrant'. Diff to discrimination which is a negative behaviour, not an attitude. Diff ways of viewing prejudice. - Personality view - Social context - Language

Question 70

Describe the Black Sheep Effect

Answer 70

Ingroup deviants are often disliked more than outsiders and are harshly punished. This is the consequent of being a deviant - less prototypical group members. Marques et al. (1988) was the first study to test it. - Belgian students evaluated attractive and unattractive Belgian and N African students on set of personality adjectives. - They rated unattractive ingroup members more harshly than outgroup. Deviants are a threat to group identity as they undermine shared consensus and reciprocal validation within the group. Disagreement with outgroup members is not problematic as we don't expect them to be similar and agree. Disagreement with ingroup members can be problematic as people want to be sure that they are correct and if others think differently it is seen as contradicting group identity.

Question 71

Are group deviants always bad?

Answer 71

No because can help define group membership. - Help show what is and isn't legitimate as a group member. - Precisely define normative criteria for group membership. - Group norms often only appear when they are violated They are not always evaluated negatively in all types of groups. - Some groups see as bad, some see as more positive. - Individualistic groups value independence, ppl who express their own opinions in spite of pressure from group. - Collectivist ethos groups value group cohesion and harmony. Value members who avoid conflict.

Question 72

Describe the experiment of Hornsey et al. (2006)

Answer 72

Investigating deviance Condition 1 = Read document about collectivist orientation of students Condition 2 = Document about individualistic ethos of students. - Participants told about gov plans to increase upfront fees and that most students oppose this idea. - Consider opinion of student by stating how much they agree with them (half agree, half don't) Results - Deviant evaluated more negatively when had collective ethos - Positive when concordant view (positive) - Individualist ethos = Seen deviant more positively.

Question 73

Explain the strategies used by non-prototypical group members to enhance their position within the group

Answer 73

Conformity to norms of the group - Wicklund & Bruan (1987) - Those strongly committed to a group yet not members were more likely to describe themselves in terms of the group features than core members. Want to show they are part of group. Exaggerate. Derogation of non-prototypical group members & Praise of prototypical group members - Schmitt & Branscombe (2001) - Men who highly identified with gender group more degrotary towards non-prototypical men, more favourable towards prototypical men when told they were non-prototypical. Want to show they comply. Increased derogation of outgroup members - Breakwell (1979) - Tested people to see if they could join a good anagram solvers group. Some passed test and were allowed to join bc they were allowed to cheat. Illegitimate members showed more extreme outgroup derogation than those who felt legitimate.

Question 74

Describe the study of Sani & Reicher (1999)

Answer 74

Schisms - The division of a group into subgroups and one subgroup moving to another. A split in the group. Whether or not a change is consistent with identity is a matter or argument. Church of England - There were debates over women being allowed to become priests. - Many believed that it did not comply with the group norms and that the Church would loss its identity if it made the decision. - Many left and joined another group. - Supporters argued that it strengthened identity and that the new norm was concurrent with group identity. - Opponents argued that has implications for identity, against tradition and values. Would change identity beyond recognition. - Highly emotional. Felt like lost part of who they are, loss.

Question 75

Sani (2005)

Answer 75

Defined the schismatic process. Starts with perception that a change to norms overthrows the group identity. Aversive emotional states Lowered group identification Schism - More likely when marginalisation and isolation within group foreseen. The trigger that may lead to a schism is the perception that the change implies a radical subversion of the group identity, a denial of its true deep essence.

Question 76

Describe the study of Hopkins et al. (2007) and everyday interactions

Answer 76

Helping behaviour of Scotts affected when reputation for being mean made salient. Study 1: Scots believe seen as more mean by English, motivated to refute it. Help out-group Study 2: Increase salience of mean meta-stereotypes. Scots describe Scottish as more generous Study 3: Manipulated degree of help. - When mean stereotype more salient, show higher levels of helping towards outgroup, but not in-group

Question 77

Describe the study of Steele et al. (1995) and everyday interactions

Answer 77

Concept of stereotype threat - disrupting effects. Study 1: When test is diagnostic (told it would assess intellectual capacities), blacks underperform. When not told this, perform equally as well. Study 2: Replicated parts of study 1 and blacks attempted less q, but no relationship on anxiety Study 3: Fill in words. Different depending on what was made salient. Diagnostic condition, words like race and minority. Reported enjoying activities less, stereotype avoidance. Study 4: Black performance dropped when indicate race on questionaire.

Question 78

Provide examples of how positive stereotypes can help in everyday interactions

Answer 78

Ambady et al. (2001) - Positive stereotypes increase perf while neg decreased Ho, Dirscoll and Loosbrook (1998) - Grading of math assignment when race marked. If there was time pressure, less points assigned to asians than whites

Question 79

How can humour be used in social interactions?

Answer 79

Strengthen social cohesion - Fulfill tension relieving role - Decrease social distance Reflect social hierarchy - Strengthen negative stereotypical representations - Cruel when used in social conflicts - Robinson and Smith-Lovin (2001) - Power relations important in how humour is used. Higher members of group use more humour, more successful, more hierarchy building. Use by powerless - Eliminate embarrassment, reduce power relationships - Can contribute to creating imbalance of power - Contribute to social resistance

Question 80

Describe the study of Dobai and Hopkins (2019) in discussing everyday interactions

Answer 80

- Interviews with Hungarian-Roma to see if humour can challenge unequal power relations - Interaction with security guard - Become ashamed as know they were being prejudice. Stereotype made explicit through use of humour.

Question 81

Cheyran and Monin (2015)

Answer 81

- 1998 Winter Olympics - Newspaper headline of American winner against American of another ethnicity denied them of identity status. - TV Show - When Asians asked if spoke English. Took more time to recall more TV shows

Question 82

Sue et al. (2007)

Answer 82

- Differentiated between different types of subtle racism - All types assume don't have same experience - Intelligence assumptions - Second class citizenship e.g. seating at back of restaurant