sociological theories of crime

Question 1

Describe the sociological perspective on the cause of crime.

Answer 1

Sociologists believe that the cause of crime lies in society, emphasizing that social factors play a decisive role in influencing individuals and creating criminals.

Question 2

How do sociologists view physiological and psychological theories of crime?

Answer 2

Sociologists generally reject physiological and psychological theories of crime because they fail to recognize that the meanings attached to crime and deviance are shaped by social and cultural factors.

Question 3

Define the concept of deviance in relation to crime according to sociologists.

Answer 3

Sociologists argue that many people commit acts of deviance and crime at some point in their lives, and many criminals are never detected, indicating that deviance is not exclusive to a certain type of person.

Question 4

What is the role of socialization in functionalist theory?

Answer 4

Functionalists believe that socialization is a lifelong process through which individuals learn the culture, norms, and values of society, starting from childhood.

Question 5

Differentiate between primary and secondary socialization.

Answer 5

Primary socialization occurs during early childhood, usually within the family, while secondary socialization takes place as individuals interact with other institutions like schools and peer groups throughout their lives.

Question 6

How do functionalists perceive the relationship between crime and society?

Answer 6

Functionalists view crime as beneficial for society, as it can improve social integration and regulation.

Question 7

Identify two main thinkers associated with the functionalist perspective on crime.

Answer 7

The two main thinkers associated with the functionalist perspective on crime are Emile Durkheim and Robert Merton.

Question 8

What was Emile Durkheim’s contribution to sociology?

Answer 8

Emile Durkheim was a French social scientist who developed a methodology combining empirical research with sociological theory and is regarded as the founder of the French school of sociology.

Question 9

Explain Durkheim’s view of society and its norms.

Answer 9

Durkheim saw society as a stable structure based on shared norms, values, and beliefs about right and wrong, which produces social solidarity or integration.

Question 10

What is the significance of social solidarity according to Durkheim?

Answer 10

Social solidarity is significant as it ensures that most people conform to society’s shared norms and values, fostering a sense of belonging among members.

Question 11

How does functionalism view the structure of society?

Answer 11

Functionalism views society as a system made up of inter-dependent parts or sub-systems, such as the economy, education, media, law, religion, and family, which depend on each other.

Question 12

Describe the four key characteristics of crime according to Durkheim.

Answer 12

1. Inevitable: Crime will always exist, can be reduced but never eliminated. 2. Universal: Crime exists in every society. 3. Relative: Criminal behaviour varies from society to society and over time. 4. Functional: A limited amount of crime can benefit society by strengthening social bonds.

Question 13

How does Durkheim define ‘anomie’?

Answer 13

Anomie is a state where shared norms become weakened, leading to unclear rules about behaviour due to inadequate socialization and the presence of subcultures.

Question 14

Explain why Durkheim believes crime is inevitable.

Answer 14

Durkheim argues that crime is inevitable because some individuals in every society are inadequately socialized, leading to variations in behaviour and norms.

Question 15

What does Durkheim mean by crime being universal?

Answer 15

Durkheim states that there is no society without crime, and abnormal levels of crime can occur during social upheaval when collective conscience weakens.

Question 16

Define the concept of crime being relative according to Durkheim.

Answer 16

Crime is relative because what is considered deviant behaviour can differ between societies and contexts, such as a soldier killing in war versus a murderer.

Question 17

How does crime function positively in society according to Durkheim?

Answer 17

Crime functions positively by maintaining boundaries of acceptable behaviour, strengthening social bonds, and prompting changes in public opinion and laws.

Question 18

What is boundary maintenance in the context of Durkheim’s positive functions of crime?

Answer 18

Boundary maintenance unites society members against wrongdoers, reminding them of the distinction between right and wrong and reaffirming shared values.

Question 19

Describe the role of social change in Durkheim’s view of crime.

Answer 19

Social change is necessary for progress, as individuals with new ideas challenge existing norms, initially seen as deviance, which can lead to societal evolution.

Question 20

What is the safety valve function of crime according to Durkheim?

Answer 20

The safety valve function of crime allows individuals to express frustrations, such as through prostitution, without threatening the stability of the nuclear family.

Question 21

How does Durkheim view deviance as a warning light?

Answer 21

Deviance serves as a warning light indicating that an institution is not functioning properly, such as high truancy rates signalling issues within the education system.

Question 22

Who is Robert Merton and what is his significance in sociology?

Answer 22

Robert King Merton was an American sociologist, a founding father of modern sociology, and a major contributor to criminology, serving as the 47th president of the American Sociological Association.

Question 23

What does Merton identify as the root cause of crime?

Answer 23

Merton identifies the unequal structure of society as the root cause of crime, where societal values prioritize ‘money success’ but not everyone has equal opportunities to achieve it.

Question 24

How does Merton’s view on success differ from societal expectations?

Answer 24

Merton argues that while society values wealth and success, not everyone has an equal chance to achieve these goals legitimately due to social inequalities.

Question 25

Describe the relationship between poverty and opportunities for working-class people.

Answer 25

Poverty and inadequate schools often block opportunities for working-class people, creating a strain between societal goals and the lack of legitimate means to achieve them.

Question 26

Define Merton's view on deviance and crime.

Answer 26

Merton argues that deviance and crime occur when individuals cannot achieve socially approved goals through legitimate means.

Question 27

How does Merton's strain theory explain deviant behaviour?

Answer 27

Merton's strain theory explains that deviant behaviour results from the strain individuals feel when they cannot achieve societal goals legitimately.

Question 28

What are the two elements that Merton combines in his explanation of deviance?

Answer 28

Merton combines structural factors, which refer to society's unequal opportunity structure, and cultural factors, which emphasize society's focus on success goals over legitimate means.

Question 29

Explain the concept of the American Dream according to Merton.

Answer 29

The American Dream suggests that anyone who makes an effort can succeed, implying that there are opportunities for all, but poverty and discrimination can block these opportunities.

Question 30

What are the four possible deviant adaptations to strain identified by Merton?

Answer 30

The four possible deviant adaptations are Conformity, Innovation, Ritualism, Retreatism, and Rebellion.

Question 31

How does conformity differ from innovation in Merton's strain theory?

Answer 31

Conformity involves accepting culturally approved goals and striving to achieve them legitimately, while innovation accepts the goals but uses illegitimate means to achieve them.

Question 32

What is ritualism in the context of Merton's strain theory?

Answer 32

Ritualism occurs when individuals give up on achieving goals but continue to follow the means for their own sake.

Question 33

Describe retreatism as a response to strain.

Answer 33

Retreatism involves rejecting both societal goals and legitimate means, leading individuals to drop out of society.

Question 34

What does rebellion entail in Merton's strain theory?

Answer 34

Rebellion involves replacing existing societal goals and means with new ones in an effort to bring about social change.

Question 35

List one strength of strain theory.

Answer 35

One strength of strain theory is that it shows both normal and deviant behaviours arise from the same societal goals.

Question 36

Identify a weakness of Merton's strain theory.

Answer 36

A weakness of Merton's strain theory is that it ignores crimes committed by the wealthy.

Question 37

What do interactionist theories focus on regarding crime?

Answer 37

Interactionist theories focus on the meanings or labels that arise from interactions between individuals, rather than social background.

Question 38

How do interactionists view the emergence of crime?

Answer 38

Interactionists argue that crime emerges due to labelling by authorities rather than as a result of external social forces.

Question 39

What is the significance of micro-level interactions in interactionist theories of crime?

Answer 39

Micro-level interactions highlight that crime is a product of specific interactions between individuals and the police, rather than broader social structures.

Question 40

Describe the labelling theory of crime.

Answer 40

The labelling theory of crime suggests that crime is socially constructed and that agents of social control label the powerless as deviant based on stereotypes, leading to effects like self-fulfilling prophecies and deviancy amplification.

Question 41

Define primary deviance.

Answer 41

Primary deviance refers to a violation of social norms that does not result in long-term consequences and does not negatively affect an individual's self-image.

Question 42

Explain secondary deviance.

Answer 42

Secondary deviance occurs when a person's self-concept changes due to the label society assigns to them, often leading to a more entrenched deviant identity.

Question 43

What is a master status in the context of labelling theory?

Answer 43

A master status is a chief characteristic of an individual that overshadows other traits, often influencing how they are perceived and treated by society.

Question 44

How does Howard Becker define deviant behaviour?

Answer 44

Howard Becker states that deviant behaviour is not an inherent quality of the act itself but rather a consequence of the application of rules and sanctions by others.

Question 45

Illustrate how social context can affect the perception of a crime.

Answer 45

In a low-income neighbourhood, a fight may be labelled as delinquency by police, while the same act in a wealthy area might be seen as high spirits, demonstrating how context influences labelling.

Question 46

What is differential enforcement of law according to interactionists?

Answer 46

Differential enforcement of law refers to the phenomenon where social control agencies, like the police, enforce laws more stringently against certain groups, leading to unequal treatment.

Question 47

Summarize the findings of Piliavin and Briar regarding police arrests.

Answer 47

Piliavin and Briar found that police decisions to arrest individuals were influenced by stereotypical ideas related to manner, dress, gender, class, ethnicity, and the context of time and place.

Question 48

How does labelling contribute to crime and deviance according to Edwin Lemert?

Answer 48

Edwin Lemert argues that labelling individuals as deviant encourages them to engage in further deviant behaviour, leading to a cycle of primary deviance, labelling, and secondary deviance.

Question 49

What is the Marxist perspective on society?

Answer 49

Marxists view society as structured around conflict rather than consensus, focusing on the unequal relationship between the capitalist class (bourgeoisie) and the working class (proletariat).

Question 50

Describe the capitalist class according to Marxism.

Answer 50

The capitalist class, or bourgeoisie, owns the means of production, such as factories, and exploits the labour of the working class for profit.

Question 51

Explain the role of the working class in Marxist theory.

Answer 51

In Marxist theory, the working class, or proletariat, is exploited by the capitalist class, as their labour is used to generate profit for the owners of production.

Question 52

Describe the role of society's institutions in maintaining class inequality.

Answer 52

Society's institutions, such as the education system, media, religion, family, law enforcement, police, and courts, help to maintain class inequality and capitalism.

Question 53

Define the proletariat in Marxist theory.

Answer 53

The proletariat refers to the working class or subject class that is often too preoccupied with fighting among themselves to recognize their oppression.

Question 54

How do the bourgeoisie maintain their power in a capitalist society?

Answer 54

The bourgeoisie, or ruling class, maintain their power by keeping wealth and resources concentrated in their hands, driven by profit motives that perpetuate inequality.

Question 55

Explain how capitalism is viewed as a criminogenic society.

Answer 55

Marxists argue that capitalism drives the causes of crime, making crime inevitable due to its exploitative nature and the pressures it places on individuals.

Question 56

What is the relationship between capitalism and consumerism?

Answer 56

Capitalism promotes consumerism through advertising, leading to utilitarian crimes, such as theft, as individuals seek to obtain goods.

Question 57

How does inequality contribute to crime according to Marxist theory?

Answer 57

Inequality fosters feelings of alienation and frustration, which can result in non-utilitarian crimes like violence and vandalism.

Question 58

Discuss the impact of the profit motive on corporate crime.

Answer 58

The profit motive in capitalism encourages capitalists to commit corporate crimes, such as tax evasion and breaking health and safety laws, to gain competitive advantages.

Question 59

Evaluate the severity of corporate crime compared to street crime.

Answer 59

Corporate crime is often punished less severely than street crime, typically resulting in fines rather than jail time, reflecting a bias in the legal system.

Question 60

What does William Chambliss argue about the laws in capitalist society?

Answer 60

William Chambliss argues that laws are created to protect the private property of the wealthy, often neglecting the needs of the working class.

Question 61

How does selective law enforcement manifest in society?

Answer 61

Selective law enforcement focuses on enforcing laws against the working class while often ignoring or lightly punishing crimes committed by the upper class.

Question 62

Identify the ideological functions of crime and law in a capitalist society.

Answer 62

The ideas surrounding crime and law serve as an ideology that conceals the underlying inequalities of capitalist society.

Question 63

What example illustrates the disparity in law enforcement between classes?

Answer 63

Laws against homeless squatting exist, while there are no laws preventing the wealthy from owning multiple properties.

Question 64

How does capitalism influence the motivations behind crime?

Answer 64

Capitalism's emphasis on profit and competition can lead individuals to commit crimes out of necessity or greed, reflecting the system's inherent inequalities.

Question 65

Discuss the consequences of a worker's death due to corporate negligence.

Answer 65

A worker's death caused by a company's failure to provide safety equipment highlights the dangers of prioritizing profit over worker safety in a capitalist system.

Question 66

Analyse the implications of a woman stealing bread due to poverty.

Answer 66

A woman stealing bread to feed herself exemplifies the desperation caused by economic inequality, illustrating how individuals may resort to crime for survival.

Question 67

What are the broader societal implications of crime driven by capitalism?

Answer 67

Crime driven by capitalism reflects systemic issues, such as poverty and inequality, and highlights the need for societal change to address these root causes.

Question 68

Describe the impact of selective enforcement on the working class.

Answer 68

Selective enforcement creates the perception that crime is primarily a fault of the working class, leading to division among workers and encouraging them to blame working-class criminals for their problems.

Question 69

How does selective enforcement affect attention towards ruling-class crime?

Answer 69

Selective enforcement diverts attention away from more serious crimes committed by the ruling class.

Question 70

Define the limited benefits of certain laws for workers.

Answer 70

Some laws, like health and safety regulations, provide limited benefits to workers but also serve to give capitalism a 'caring' image.

Question 71

Explain how certain ideas influence the working class's view of capitalism.

Answer 71

These ideas encourage the working class to accept capitalism rather than seek to replace it with a more equitable society.

Question 72

What is the perspective of Right Realism on crime?

Answer 72

Right Realism, with a conservative outlook, views crime, particularly street crime, as a growing problem and focuses on practical solutions for reduction through control and punishment rather than rehabilitation.

Question 73

Identify the causes of crime according to Right Realism.

Answer 73

Right Realism rejects the Marxist view of poverty as a cause of crime, instead attributing it to biological differences, inadequate socialization, and rational choice.

Question 74

How do biological differences contribute to criminal behaviour?

Answer 74

Biological differences, such as hormones, personality traits, and low intelligence levels, can predispose some individuals to commit crimes.

Question 75

Summarise Wilson and Herrnstein's bio-social theory of criminality.

Answer 75

Wilson and Herrnstein propose that crime results from a combination of biological and social factors.

Question 76

What is inadequate socialisation and its effect on crime?

Answer 76

Inadequate socialisation refers to improper upbringing that fails to install norms, values, and self-control, increasing the risk of criminality in children.

Question 77

Discuss Murray's argument regarding the underclass and crime.

Answer 77

Murray argues that welfare dependency is creating an underclass that inadequately socializes their children, leading to higher crime rates.

Question 78

What role do fathers play in socialisation according to Murray?

Answer 78

Murray suggests that families need fathers, as the absence of a male role model in single-parent households can lead to a lack of discipline and increased delinquency among boys.

Question 79

Explain the concept of rational choice theory in the context of crime.

Answer 79

Rational choice theory posits that individuals are rational beings who make decisions to commit crimes based on a calculation of risks versus rewards.

Question 80

How do perceived costs of crime influence criminal behaviour?

Answer 80

Right realists argue that high crime rates occur because the perceived costs of committing crimes are low, leading criminals to believe they will not be caught or severely punished.

Question 81

What is a potential issue with rational choice theory regarding offenders?

Answer 81

If rational choice theory is accurate, offenders may simply shift their focus to softer targets if they perceive risks to be low.

Question 82

Describe displacement in the context of crime.

Answer 82

Displacement refers to the idea that crime does not decline but rather shifts locations or targets.

Question 83

Explain Felson's routine activity theory.

Answer 83

Felson's routine activity theory posits that for a crime to occur, three factors must be present: a motivated offender, a suitable target, and the absence of a capable guardian.

Question 84

Identify the three necessary factors for a crime to occur according to Felson's theory.

Answer 84

The three necessary factors are: a motivated offender, a suitable target, and the absence of a capable guardian.

Question 85

How does the presence of a capable guardian affect crime rates according to Felson?

Answer 85

The presence of a capable guardian, such as a police officer or neighbour, is likely to deter motivated offenders from committing crimes.

Question 86

Summarise the strengths of Right Realism evaluation.

Answer 86

Strengths include studies supporting Rational Choice Theory, such as Rettig's scenario experiment and Feldman's findings on rational decision-making, as well as insights from Bennett and Wright on the importance of risk in committing crimes.

Question 87

What are some weaknesses of Right Realism evaluation?

Answer 87

Weaknesses include the applicability of experimental results to real offenders, uncertainty about the thought processes of successful burglars, and the notion that not all crimes result from rational decisions.

Question 88

Discuss the focus of Left Realism in understanding crime.

Answer 88

Left Realism focuses on individual-level factors that lead to crime, emphasizing the need for practical explanations and solutions to reduce crime.

Question 89

What is the Left Realist perspective on the root cause of crime?

Answer 89

Left Realists view inequality in capitalist society as the root cause of crime, particularly affecting disadvantaged groups.

Question 90

Identify the main victims of crime according to Left Realism.

Answer 90

The main victims are often disadvantaged groups, including the working-class, ethnic minorities, and women.

Question 91

How do Left Realists propose to reduce crime?

Answer 91

Left Realists propose to reduce crime by making society fairer and more equal.

Question 92

List the three causes of crime proposed by Left Realism.

Answer 92

The three causes of crime are subcultures, relative deprivation, and marginalization.

Question 93

Define relative deprivation in the context of crime.

Answer 93

Relative deprivation refers to the feeling of deprivation one experiences in comparison to others.

Question 94

What factors increase the sense of relative deprivation according to Lea and Young?

Answer 94

Factors include media messages promoting material possessions and increasing societal inequality due to cuts in benefits, unemployment, and low pay.