Sociology Paper 1 Flashcards
(208 cards)
1
Q
Culture capital
A
the knowledge about language cultures and manners
what is cultrually expected and how u exp to behaviour
language in exam = matches the dominant class
working class doesnt learn this type of language and wont understand it
2
Q
Social capital
A
surrounds the student, family and friends
for good education, needs to be surrounded by the right person
if u are in WC fam = ppoor social capital leads to less sucess rate because you are surround by the wrong people and they wont enable you to sucess
3
Q
Economic Capital
A
Money and property each Idv possess
pupil with high economic capital meaning those parents can buy tutors and books and revision guides and can access more culture capital because they have a greater understanding of language in the edu system
4
Q
A
5
Q
What is “Habitus” and who speaks about it?
A
Bourdieu and he states that it is a classes own set of ideas and values which are particular to that social class.
6
Q
Durkheim: 2 Positive functions education provides for society
A
1) Promoting social solidarity
2) By teaching specialist skills
7
Q
What is social solidarity?
A
1) the ties that bind people together in society
2)
8
Q
2 types of social solidarity.
A
mechanical solidarity (pre industrial era)
organic solidarity (modern solidarity)
9
Q
what is mechanical solidarity?
A
more traditional form of solidarity. came from people who use to live in small communities, believing in religion. However, industrialisation lead to more secularisation and more independence (urbanisation)
10
Q
What is organic solidarity?
A
people form new bonds with people who have similar experience. also new religious movements
11
Q
how does education achieve social solidarity?
A
1) Schools teach students about their “shared heritage” to get a sense of a shared identity. This is done through lessons such as History, Literature, and Religion. This creates a sense of common identity because most students in UK have studied shakespeare at one point
12
Q
Another way education achieved social solidarity.
A
through communal gatherings such as assemblies, graduation, whole school gathering. This promotes values of belonging to a community and being accepted.
13
Q
How is social solidarity promoted in contemporary education?
A
The “island story” of Britain. From magma carta (1215) to the invention of the internet. Which gets British history into students head. This was done to get a solidarity among students as Gove removed European and non British authors.
14
Q
Criticisms of Functionalism:
A
15
Q
2nd function of education by Durkheim:
A
Provide next generation with skills in the workforce.
16
Q
how does education provides the next generation with skills?
A
1) education sets out knowledge thru the national curriculum, helps prepare students for future employment via literacy and numeracy.
2) It helps students become specialised BC teachers offer these subjects are A levels and then again at University.
3) Creation of universities gave students technical and scientifical skills.
17
Q
evidence of teaching specialist skills thru educational policy
A
- Additional funding for maths students so more schools to provide for this shortage skill.
- Standardised Assessments such as A levels, GCSE, SATS to test students for specific skills such as Application, analysis and evaluation.
- students getting taught skills which allows them to compete globally.
18
Q
What is Marketisation?
A
- Market Principles to the education system.
- Promotes more choice in type of education students can receive.
- Promoting competition between institutions for students which raises standards.
19
Q
How has Conservative (19__ - 1997) achieved this?
A
- (1979–1997)
Conservatives achieved this by creating the education reform act in 1988. This created open enrollment, so parents have a greater choice of where to send their kids.
national curriculum as a framework for educational standards and standardised testing to compare schools to each other.
Formula Funding - Schools received specific amount per pupil, this created more competition for students.
20
Q
what are the 5 things Conservative Created?
A
Open enrolment
National Curriculum
Standardised Testing
Formula Funding
League Tables and OFSTED
21
Q
New Labour also adopted marketisation, how? and when did they come about?
A
1997 - 2010.
City acedemies, this was when Labour took failing schools in inner city areas and combined them into city centre acedemies with more funding from private people. This lead to more choice.
-Labour also brought in a wider range of schools such as specialist schools which are schools which focussed specially on certain areas of the curriculum like sports or science.
Faith schools, which promoted a more culturally diverse UK.
Labour introduced Tuition fees in 1998, this lead to growth of educational market and higher education.
22
Q
When did Coalition Government come about and how did they achieve Marketisation?
A
- 2010 - 2015.
- Pupil premium, additional funding to schools with pupils with low income families, further expanded competition between schools for funding.
- Reformed curriculum to set more challenges to schools and introduced progress 8 which measures the progress a student would make in their school career.
- Further increased tuition fees for high value courses lead to further competition between universities/
23
Q
What are the impacts of marketisation?
A
- wider choice for schools for parents and students, such as free schools academies, faith schools universities and specialist schools.
- More universitiy attendance as more people would like to attend it from overseas.
- Improvement in GCSE and A level passes.
24
Q
Criticisms of Marketisation.
A
-Stephan Ball suggests parentocracy is a myth and the education market only serves the MC, who have the cultural and material capital.
-Open enrolment has been replaced by covert selection policies such as pricing uniform very high so WC cannot afford to go.
- Marketisation leads to ‘teaching the test’ instead of developing deeper knowledge.
25
Globalisation is ?
the increased interconnectedness of different areas of the world.
26
impact of globalisation on education
Globalization has influenced educational policies worldwide, encouraging nations to learn from successful educational practices in other countries.
27
Examples of International Assessments:
• PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment) and TIMSS (Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study) rank countries based on student performance in subjects like science, reading, and math.
28
UK Ranking for maths english science in 2015
• Ranked 15th for reading, 27th for math, and 26th for science in PISA, prompting initiatives to improve specific subjects like mathematics.
29
Direct Influence of Globalization on Educational Policies
• UK adopted academies and free schools based on American and Scandinavian models to enhance educational outcomes as these schools were both high in the rankings at the time
30
what did National Campaigns do?
• Introduced literacy and numeracy campaigns to meet global workplace demands and improve educational standards.
31
how did globalisation affect teaching standards?
• Extended teacher training programs and promoted higher qualifications to enhance teaching quality, mirroring practices from Scandinavian countries.
32
Indirect Impacts of Globalization on Educational Policy (Part 1)
Cultural and Economic Influence:
• Spread of Western culture and neoliberal economics led to policy responses like promoting British values to combat radicalization in schools.
33
What did Neoliberalists advocate for?
- Charter schools (publically funded, privately ran)
- Treating education like a commodity, textbooks, online courses, degrees) all bought.
- advocated for school benchmarks, testing students ability and teacher quality and overall school performance. Benchmarks allowed for schools to be compared
34
What did Neoliberalists advocate for?
- Charter schools (publically funded, privately ran)
- Treating education like a commodity, textbooks, online courses, degrees) all bought.
- advocated for school benchmarks, testing students ability and teacher quality and overall school performance. Benchmarks allowed for schools to be compared
35
Indirect Impacts of Globalization on Educational Policy (part 2)
Marketization and Privatization
:
• Growth of market-driven policies saw UK universities establishing overseas campuses and educational trusts managing schools abroad.
- a lot of overseas students came to UK universities because of their high rankings.
36
Indirect Impacts of Globalization on Educational Policy (Part 3)
Increased Mobility and Diversity:
• Increased student mobility and diversity influenced UK tuition fee policies and funding for English language learning programs.
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Indirect Impacts of Globalization on Educational Policy (Part 3)
Increased Mobility and Diversity:
• Increased student mobility and diversity influenced UK tuition fee policies and funding for English language learning programs.
38
Positive aspect of Globalisation
Looking to other cultures for solutions, including in education.
39
Global Performance Rankings:
1)International ranking schemes like ____ and _____ assess education effectiveness.
2) UK rankings in 2015: __th in Science, __st in Reading, __th in Maths.
3) Nations can improve by learning from top-ranking countries like _____________, ___________, ______________.
1) PISA, TIMSS
2) 15th, 21st, 27th
3)Singapore, Finland, and Canada.
40
Influence on Educational Policy:
Adoption of educational models from other countries (e.g., American charter schools, Scandinavian free schools).
National literacy and numeracy campaigns to create global workplace skills.
Initiatives to raise teacher qualifications and knowledge base.
41
Indirect Impacts of Globalization
Growth of Western culture and neoliberal economics.
Introduction of British values in schools to combat terrorism.
Marketization and privatization in education, overseas campuses, and educational trusts.
42
Increased Travel and Tuition Fees
High-ranking UK universities attract global students.
Overseas students pay higher tuition fees, influencing UK tuition fee policies.
Increased funding for ESOL and EAL programs to integrate immigrants into the workforce.
43
Changes in Educational Experience
- Global research cooperation influences teaching and learning (e.g., growth mindset, cognitive load theory).
- Migration leads to curriculum changes (e.g., offering Arabic and Polish).
- Multicultural approaches improve attainment (achievement) of minority ethnic groups.
44
Criticisms of Globalization in Education:
- Narrow focus of ranking systems on Science, Reading, and Maths; these are important but could be too simplistic as it ignores other aspects of education like art or physical education.
- External constraints may hinder the effectiveness of imported educational policies such as cultural and socio economic differences which may not work as well as in other countries.
- Differences in educational approaches (e.g., Eastern Asia vs. Finland) and their suitability, countries like japan and south korea are known for their excessive focus on education and standardised testing; whereas Finland focusses more on creativity and student well being. South Korea has the higheste suicide rate in the developed countries and is the leading death for teenagers in education.
- Reliability and validity issues with international testing - these tests have faced criticism regarding their reliability and validity. Issues such as cultural bias in test questions, differences in educational contexts and curricula across countries. This can impact the reliability and the validity of the results.
45
Habitus:
Tastes, attitudes, and attributes shaped by socialization (family background, social class, etc.).
46
Habitus and Field:
1) Habitus:
2) Field:
Result of socialisation; includes family background, likes, interests, ethnic, and national backgrounds.
Social context where one's habitus operates; middle-class fields (arts, politics, education) can disadvantage those without a middle-class habitus.
47
Cultural Capital:
Sum of one's habitus and the field they enter determines _________ ___________
Example: A working-class male has higher cultural capital in a working-class field (__________) than in a middle-class field (____).
1) cultural capital.
2) factory, arts
48
Education and Cultural Reproduction:
- Education constructed by middle-class values benefits students with similar habitus.
- Working-class students have less cultural capital and experience symbolic violence in education.
- Attributes of habitus (language, dress, cultural knowledge) influence educational success.
49
Symbolic Violence
Concept by Bourdieu.
When dominant culture's values are forced onto others.
In schools, this happens when the culture of working-class students is ignored or devalued.
This makes it harder for these students to succeed.
Examples: Criticism of working-class language, dress, and culture, leading to them feeling left out and having fewer chances to do well in school.
50
Language and Education:
Language in education is often elaborated code (complex grammar, expansive vocabulary) favoring middle-class students.
Working-class students at a disadvantage due to different linguistic habits (restricted code).
51
Dress Codes and Education
Dress codes reflect middle-class tastes, disadvantaging working-class students.
Students can be removed from learning due to non-conformity with dress codes, judged by appearance.
52
Curriculum Content
Curriculum often based on middle-class preferences (literature, music, history).
Working-class cultural knowledge and histories are underrepresented, reducing their cultural capital.
53
Contemporary Education Policies
- Promotion of cultural capital in schools aims to facilitate social mobility.
- Marxists criticise this as forcing middle-class values on working-class students.
- Uniform policies and curriculum content often reflect middle-class norms, acting as covert selection mechanisms.
54
Covert Selection
- A subtle way schools favor middle-class students over working-class students.
- Schools use policies like strict uniform rules, specific suppliers, and banning certain brands ( WC cant afford)
- These policies discourage working-class students from attending or feeling comfortable.
- Leads to a school environment that supports middle-class values and habits.
- A form of hidden bias in the education system that perpetuates inequality.
55
Real-World Applications and Research:
- Archer:
- Reay:
-
- Nike identities and symbolic capital among working-class students.
- Middle-class habitus at home linked to academic success, but cultural capital is not the only factor.
56
Reay's Study
- Cleft habitus and psychosocial impacts on working-class male students: where working-class male students experience a disjointed sense of self due to conflicting pressures from their working-class backgrounds and the middle-class values promoted by educational institutions. This dissonance can lead to psychosocial challenges, such as feelings of being unable to compete and alienation (isolated) , impacting their educational engagement and overall well-being.
57
Archer's Study
Nike identities and symbolic capital among working-class students:
Louis Archer's research explores how working-class students use "Nike identities" to gain symbolic capital within their peer groups. These identities, characterized by wearing branded clothing like Nike, help students assert their status and navigate their social environments. However, this form of capital often conflicts with the values and expectations of the educational system, potentially hindering academic success.
58
Criticisms of Bourdieu
Functionalists argue education is meritocratic and knowledge is necessary for success.
Critics suggest Bourdieu's model is deterministic, though he acknowledged cultural knowledge can be learned but not as naturally as for those immersed in it at home.
59
Features of Privatization in Education
- Transfer of assets and resources from state control to the private sector.
- A feature of neoliberal economic policies in the UK for the past 40 years.
- Different from private or independent schools that charge fees.
60
Components of Privatization
- Privatization of the Education System: Schools gain independence from local education authority (LEA) control.
- Outsourcing Education Services: Use of private providers for aspects like management by academy trusts, educational consultants, and examination services.
61
Business Practices in Schools
- Performance Targets ?
- Marketing ?
- Efficiency Measures?
- Schools set and report progress to governors or academy trusts.
- Significant budget spent on advertising to attract students.
- Larger class sizes, limited resources, sponsorship from parents and businesses.
62
Features of Academization:
Schools opt out of LEA control to assume financial management:
Second wave under the coalition government from 2010:
Leaders adopt business practices for efficiency:
- This means schools decide to no longer be under the direct management of the local education authority (LEA). Instead, they take responsibility for managing their own finances, which includes budgeting, spending, and financial planning.
- This indicates that there was a renewed push or increase in the number of schools becoming academies during a specific period, particularly under the coalition government in the UK starting around 2010.
- School leaders, when schools become academies, often adopt business-like practices to improve efficiency. This can include strategic planning, performance management, and financial accountability similar to practices found in private businesses.
63
Role of Academy Trusts:
Manage several schools under one structure.
Appointment of executive heads overseeing multiple schools.
Develop a unified educational brand with directives from executive heads.
64
Educational Consultants and Exam Boards:
-Consultants
-Exam Boards
- Advise schools on maximizing potential for a fee.
- Privately run services providing certification for student achievements, e.g., Pearson.
65
Educational Brands and Software
- Use of specific software like Google Classroom.
- Over £50 billion spent in education annually, creating a profitable market for external providers.
66
Features of Privately Funded Initiatives (PFIs)
New schools built and designed by private funding rather than local councils.
Controversial practice, similar to that in healthcare.
67
Features of Multi-Academy Trusts:
Growth evidence of privatization ?
- 738 trusts operating at least five schools in 2018.
Equivalent to managing a large company with significant annual funding.
68
Features of Global Business of Privatization
Pearson: Leading UK exam board supplying over 70 countries.
Offers a range of qualifications from BTECs to international A-levels.
69
Criticisms of Privatization:
-Curriculum Interference
-Focus on Employment Skills
-Commercialization
-Profitability Over Progress
1) When education becomes privatized, there is a risk that large corporations or private entities could influence what is taught in schools. This influence might prioritize content that aligns with their business interests or perspectives, potentially limiting the diversity and objectivity of educational material.
2) Privatization can lead to a shift in educational priorities towards emphasizing skills that are directly applicable to the job market. While practical skills are important, this focus may come at the expense of a well-rounded education that includes critical thinking, creativity, and knowledge of the humanities and social sciences.
3) Under privatization, there is a concern that schools may increasingly resemble commercial environments. This could involve schools allowing advertising within their premises or introducing products to students as part of educational activities. Such practices can create a commercial atmosphere within educational settings, potentially influencing student behaviors and priorities.
4) Privatization may prioritize short-term financial gains over long-term educational progress and quality. This could manifest in decisions where schools or educational institutions prioritize courses or activities that generate immediate revenue or attract more students, rather than focusing on providing comprehensive and valuable educational experiences that contribute to students' long-term development and success.
70
Impact on Teaching Standards
Academy trusts can hire unqualified teachers, potentially lowering standards.
Can opt out of the national curriculum but most conform to standardized assessments.
71
Material Factors
Inability to afford books, poor housing, nutrition, and lack of stability can affect a child's ability to perform well in school.
Living in inadequate or unstable housing conditions, such as overcrowded or unsafe environments, can lead to stress, fatigue, and disruptions to study routines
can negatively impact a child's cognitive development, concentration levels, and overall academic performance due to them potentially being ill more often than not.
72
Cultural Background
- Cultural background refers to the social environment in which a child is raised, this can heavily affect their attainment which can include knowledge, skills, and habits that are valued in society.
- Cultural norms regarding authority, communication styles, and the importance of specific subjects can affect how children participate in classroom activities and respond to educational expectations. This is because MC families are more likely to push them to do well in school compared to WC parents (douglas)
73
Material Factors
Impact on School Perception: Students from low-income families may appear less prepared, potentially leading to negative labeling by teachers.
Classroom Performance: Poor nutrition can affect concentration and energy levels, while unstable housing can result in frequent school changes and absence.
74
Cultural Background:
Definition?
Impact on Classroom Performance ?
Examples ?
Def: Cultural capital (knowledge, skills, education), norms, and values of different social groups.
Students with higher cultural capital (often middle-class) are more familiar with the dominant culture in schools, which can lead to better academic performance.
Middle-class students might be more accustomed to the formal language and behaviors expected in school settings.
75
Linguistic Differences
Impact in School ?
Examples ?
Language development typically occurs at home. Bernstein identified two codes: restricted code (informal, used by working-class) and elaborated code (formal, used by middle-class).
Schools primarily use the elaborated code, giving middle-class students an advantage. Working-class students may struggle with comprehension and expression in this formal language.
Working-class students may find it challenging to understand textbooks or exam questions framed in the elaborated code.
76
Parental Attitudes
Impact on Achievement ?
Examples ?
Middle-class parents often have higher educational expectations and are more involved in their children's schooling, leading to better student performance.
Parental encouragement and support can boost students' confidence and motivation, while lack of involvement may hinder academic progress.
77
Racism in Wider Society:
- Examples:
- Impact on Education:
- Stereotyping of ethnic minorities can result in unequal actions and limited access to advanced academic opportunities.
- Experiences of racism can lead to lower self-esteem and aspirations, affecting academic performance. Minority students may also face biased treatment and lower expectations from teachers.
78
Subcultural Attitudes
- Examples:
- Impact on Education:
- Peer pressure in some working-class subcultures may discourage academic effort and promote resistance to school authority.
- Subcultures that devalue education can lead to anti-school attitudes and behaviours, affecting academic achievement.
79
labelling and stereotyping.
- Impact:
- Examples:
- Labels (e.g., "bright," "troublesome") can influence teacher expectations and student self-esteem, shaping academic outcomes.
- A teacher's initial judgment may be based on external factors such as socioeconomic status or ethnicity, leading to biased treatment.
80
Pro and Anti-School Subcultures
- Impact on Careers:
- Examples: Anti-school attitudes can result in absence, lower grades, and conflict with teachers, hindering long-term success.
Pro-school subcultures value academic success and conform to school norms; anti-school subcultures reject these values and norms.
- Pro-school students are more likely to pursue higher education and professional careers, while anti-school students may face limited career opportunities.
81
Institutional Racism:
Definition:
Impact:
Examples:
1) Systematic discrimination within educational institutions that disadvantages non-white ethnic groups.
2) Non-white students may face biased assessments, lower expectations, and unequal disciplinary actions.
3) Policies and practices that disproportionately affect minority students, such as harsher punishments or tracking into less rigorous academic programs.
82
Setting and Streaming
- Impact on Achievement:
- External Influences:
Grouping students by perceived ability into different sets or streams.
- Higher sets receive more challenging work and higher expectations, while lower sets may receive less stimulating instruction.
- Material factors and cultural capital can affect placement, with middle-class students more likely to be in higher sets due to better preparation and support
83
The feminization of education
more female teachers and teaching styles) can benefit girls but may disengage boys.
The lack of male role models in schools may contribute to lower motivation and achievement among boys.
84
Curriculum Content
Subjects and materials taught in schools, often reflecting dominant cultural knowledge.
Middle-class students may have an advantage due to familiarity with the curriculum content. (Culture capital)
Examples: Shakespeare and historical figures like Henry VIII are more likely to be known by middle-class families, helping those students perform better in related subjects.
85
Linguistic Differences
External Factor:
Internal Factor:
Link:
Language development at home (restricted vs. elaborated code).
School language (elaborated code in teaching and exams).
Middle-class advantage in school due to familiarity with the elaborated code. The blame can be debated between parents' language teaching and the school's use of the elaborated code.
86
Role of Habitus
Description:
Impact:
Examples:
Tastes, attitudes, and dispositions shaped by home life and social class.
Students with a habitus that clashes with the middle-class norms of the school may face challenges in adapting to the school's cultural expectations.
Working-class students may feel out of place in a school environment that values middle-class cultural practices.
87
Curriculum Content and Parental Knowledge
Impact: Middle-class parents' familiarity with these subjects can help their children succeed academically.
Parents who know about Shakespeare and historical events can provide additional support and enrichment at home.
88
Teacher Stereotypes and Student Ability
Impact:
Examples:
Positive stereotypes (e.g., Chinese students excel) can lead to higher expectations and placement in advanced sets, while negative stereotypes (e.g., working-class boys are troublesome) can result in harsher discipline and lower academic opportunities.
Stereotypical views can shape teacher-student interactions, affecting students' educational experiences and outcomes.
89
Gender Roles and Education
Impact:
Examples:
- Gendered expectations influence subject choices and career aspirations, reinforced by school structures and teacher behaviours.
- Boys may be encouraged to pursue STEM subjects, while girls are steered towards humanities and caregiving roles.
90
Feminisation of Education
Description:
Impact:
Examples:
1) Increasing presence of female teachers and teaching styles that align with girls' learning preferences.
2) Encourages girls' academic achievement but may disengage boys, contributing to gender disparities in education and career choices.
3) Boys may lack male role models in schools, leading to lower motivation and academic performance in a feminized educational environment.
91
Who is Louis Althusser and what are his views on education?
Althusser: A neo-Marxist philosopher known for his structural Marxism approach.
Believed education serves to maintain and reproduce class inequality by instilling the dominant ideology of the ruling class into students, ensuring the working class remains docile and submissive.
92
What are the two types of state apparatuses Althusser describes?
- Repressive State Apparatus (RSA): Controls the masses through coercion and force (e.g., police, military, judiciary).
- Ideological State Apparatus (ISA): Controls the way the working class thinks through institutions like education, religion, and media.
93
How does education function as an Ideological State Apparatus (ISA) according to Althusser?
Control of Thought:
Preparation for Exploitation:
Reproduction of Ideology:
Legitimization of Inequality:
Education replaces religion as the primary method of controlling the masses' thoughts.
Prepares students for roles in the workforce that maintain their exploitation.
Installs the ruling class's ideology (hegemony) to ensure workers remain docile and submissive.
Promotes the myth of meritocracy while placing barriers for working-class students.
94
What does Althusser mean by a fragmented curriculum?
Definition:
Example:
Impact:
Curriculum that does not explain the bigger picture of society.
Subjects like politics, economics, and sociology are not core subjects, limiting students' critical thinking abilities.
Prevents students from questioning the dominant ideology and understanding broader societal structures.
95
How does the teaching of core skills contribute to Althusser's concept of ISA?
Focus on Employment Skills:
Neglect of Arts and Culture:
Cultural Dominance:
Emphasises literacy and numeracy as essential skills for the economy.
Subjects like drama, dance, and the arts are relatively ignored, alienating (isolating) working-class students.
History, literature, and music often reflect the tastes of the ruling class, ignoring working-class and minority cultures.
96
What is the myth of meritocracy according to Althusser?
Definition:
Reality:
Impact:
The belief that success is based on hard work and natural ability.
Working-class students face numerous cultural and material barriers that are ignored, leading to lower self-esteem and perceived personal failure.
Legitimizes inequality by blaming the student for their lack of success rather than the unequal system.
97
How can Althusser's ideas be applied to contemporary education?
Fragmented Curriculum:
Core Skills Emphasis:
Growth Mindset:
1) Subjects taught in isolation without context, limiting critical thinking. This fragmented approach limits students' ability to develop a in depthunderstanding and to critically engage with the subjects they study.
2) Compulsory study of maths and English. Althusser would argue that this emphasis serves to reproduce the skills and knowledge necessary for the current economic system, reinforcing existing power structures and ideological norms.
3) Promotes resilience and hard work, but may overlook structural barriers to success such as socioeconomic inequalities, unequal access to resources, and systemic discrimination.
98
What are some criticisms of Althusser's views on education?
Functionalist Critique: Disagree on motives, arguing that social solidarity and meritocracy have beneficial functions for society.
Lack of Empirical Evidence: Althusser's ideas are theoretical rather than evidence-based.
Postmodernist View: Argues there are more pathways to success in contemporary society (e.g., social media entrepreneurs).
Deterministic: Some working-class students do succeed, challenging the idea that education solely reproduces inequality.
99
Who is Talcott Parsons and what are his main ideas on education?
Main Ideas: Education acts as a bridge between home and wider society, transforming particularistic values of home into universal values of society. It also promotes meritocracy and individualism.
100
What is secondary socialization according to Parsons?
Secondary Socialization: The process by which schools help children transition from the particularistic values of the family to the universal values of society.
Example: In family settings, children might be treated uniquely, but in school and society, they are treated according to universal standards.
101
What are particularistic and universal values?
Particularistic Values: Specific to a group or individual, such as family rules and norms.
Universal Values: Apply to everyone in society, such as rules and norms in schools and workplaces.
Example: Family waits for you if you're late; school or buses do not.
102
How does education transform ascribed status into achieved status?
Ascribed Status: Status one is born into (e.g., being someone's son or daughter).
Achieved Status: Status earned based on individual merit and performance.
Meritocracy: Education promotes the idea that success is based on ability and effort, not birthright.
103
Why does Parsons believe education should promote individualism?
Individualism vs. Collectivism: Education prepares students to prioritize personal achievement over collective community bonds.
Geographically and Socially Mobile Workforce: Promotes individual mobility for career progression.
104
What is the hidden curriculum according to Parsons?
Hidden Curriculum: Implicit lessons taught in schools that are not part of the formal curriculum.
Examples: Acceptance of hierarchies, punctuality, conformity through uniforms, rewards, and sanctions.
105
How are Parsons' ideas applied in contemporary education?
Uniform Policies: Enforcing dress codes to promote conformity and universal standards.
Disciplinary Policies: Sanctions like detentions for lateness and disruptive behaviour.
Cultural Capital and Literacy: Schools teach these to help students succeed in wider society.
106
How do Marxists critique Parsons' views on education?
Hidden Curriculum: Marxists agree it exists but argue it promotes capitalist values, not societal value consensus.
Individualism: Used to prevent worker revolts and maintain ruling class dominance.
Neglect of Lower Class Values: Education prioritizes ruling class values.
107
How do postmodernists critique Parsons' views on education?
Universal Values: Argue society is fragmented and individuals choose their own values.
Impact of Education: Diluted by multicultural and media-saturated society.
Value Clashes: Lead to underachievement among students from non-dominant groups
108
What is the role of habitus in education, according to the critiques of functionalism?
Habitus: The attitudes, behaviors, and expectations inherited from one's family and social background.
Impact on Education: Working-class students may struggle in education systems that reflect middle-class habitus, leading to underachievement.
109
Who are Bowles and Gintis and what are their views on education?
Bowles and Gintis: Marxist theorists known for their critique of the education system.
Argued that the primary function of education is to reproduce the workforce for capitalist society through the hidden curriculum, preparing the next generation of workers for their roles in employment.
110
What do Bowles and Gintis mean by "the long shadow of work"?
Purpose:
The concept that the structure and processes within education mirror those of the workplace.
To prepare students for their future roles in the capitalist workforce by implicitly teaching the values, norms, and skills required in employment.
111
What is the hidden curriculum according to Bowles and Gintis?
Hidden Curriculum: The implicit lessons taught in schools that are not part of the formal curriculum (e.g., punctuality, obedience, hierarchical structures).
Function: Helps indoctrinate students into the world of work and reinforces the social order by teaching them to accept their future roles in the workforce.
112
What is the correspondence principle?
Examples:
Definition: The concept that school structures and processes closely correspond to those of the workplace.
Punctuality: Importance of being on time in both school and work.
Rewards and Sanctions: Prefects and promotions; detentions and disciplinary actions.
Extrinsic Motivations: Grades in school, wages in work.
Divisions: Classes in school, departments in work.
Hierarchies: Student-teacher-head teacher; worker-supervisor-manager.
113
How do Bowles and Gintis believe education legitimizes inequality?
Meritocracy as a Myth:
Cultural Bias:
Socialization:
1) Suggests that success is based on hard work and ability, ignoring the systemic barriers faced by working-class students.
2) Education system favoUrs middle and upper-class students, leading to higher status positions for them while working-class students are funneled into lower-status jobs.
3) Working-class students are socialized into accepting their roles in society, reinforcing the existing class structure.
114
How can Bowles and Gintis' ideas be applied to contemporary education?
Uniform Policies: Reflect workplace dress codes.
Hierarchies in Schools: Conservative proposals to give teachers more disciplinary powers mirror workplace hierarchies.
Vocational Education: Growth of academies, university technical colleges, and apprenticeship programs show education becoming more aligned with workplace needs.
115
What are some criticisms of Bowles and Gintis' views on education?
Functionalist Critique:
Student Conformity:
Lack of Work-Ready Skills:
Counter-Argument: Unpaid internships and training schemes benefit capitalism by providing free labour.
1) Argue that education serves broader societal benefits beyond workforce preparation.
2) Not all students passively accept what is taught; some resist and challenge the hidden curriculum. (ANTI SKL SUB)
3) If schools are meant to prepare students for work, why do many lack necessary skills and need further training or internships?
116
What are the New Right's views on education?
Political Ideology:
Key Beliefs:
Market Principles:
Influenced by neoliberal economic thinking.
Education should promote social solidarity, Christian values, and specialist skills.
Advocates for choice and competition to improve education standards.
117
How does the New Right align with functionalist views on education?
Social Solidarity: Promotes shared heritage and Christian values.
Specialist Skills: Agrees with Durkheim's idea that education should teach skills necessary for employment.
Differences: Emphasizes market principles of choice and competition
118
What does the New Right suggest about a market-based system in education?
Parental Choice: Parents should have the ability to choose schools for their children.
Competition: Schools should compete for students to raise standards and innovate.
Voucher System: Proposed by Chubb and Moe, allowing parents to use vouchers to choose schools.
119
How can market principles be implemented in education according to the New Right?
Competition: Schools compete for students, leading to higher standards.
Parental Choice: Parents informed about school performance to choose the best school.
Open Enrollment: Allows parents to enroll children in schools outside their locality.
Financial Independence: Schools attract additional funding and have financial independence from local education authorities.
120
What were the key features of the Education Reform Act of 1988?
National Curriculum: Standardized content for all schools.
Standardized Testing: Allows easy comparison of school performance.
Formula Funding: Schools receive funding based on the number of students.
Open Enrollment: Greater choice for parents in selecting schools.
121
What role do Ofsted and league tables play in the New Right's approach to education?
Ofsted: Compiles inspection reports to inform parents about school performance.
League Tables: Ranks schools based on standardized test results, increasing competition for students.
122
How are New Right ideas applied to contemporary education?
Standardized Testing: SATs, GCSEs, and A-levels compiled into league tables.
Education Markets: Providers from early years to higher education are monitored and ranked.
Privatization: Increased choice with academies and free schools leading to private ownership and for-profit trusts.
123
What are some criticisms of the New Right's approach to education?
Covert Selection: High-performing schools may engage in selective admissions, disadvantaging certain groups.
Property Values: Increased property values in catchment areas of high-performing schools lead to selection by mortgage.
Cultural and Social Capital: Middle-class parents are more likely to navigate the system successfully.
Research Findings: Gewirtz et al. found that marketization favours middle-class families and disadvantages others.
124
What are the different forms of choosers identified by Gewirtz et al.?
Skilled Choosers: Typically middle class, knowledgeable about admission policies.
Semi-Skilled Choosers: Working class, somewhat knowledgeable but often frustrated by the system.
Disconnected Local Choosers: Working class, tend to send children to local schools due to lack of knowledge.
125
What is the conclusion on the New Right's impact on education?
Dominant Influence: New Right policies have shaped UK education for over 30 years.
Mixed Impact: While intended to raise standards through competition and choice, they have also led to inequalities and advantages for middle-class families.
126
What was Paul Willis's approach to studying education?
Micro Viewpoint: Focused on the motivations and behaviours of individuals from working-class backgrounds.
Ethnographic Approach: Used unstructured interviews and non-participant observations.
Study Group: 12 young males from a working-class area of the Midlands.
127
What distinction did Willis observe between the "lads" and other students?
Lads: Anti-conformist, rebellious, and against school ethos. Prioritized smoking, attracting girls, pranks, and skipping lessons.
Ear'oles: Conformist students who adhered to school norms and values.
Higher Status: Among the lads, status was rewarded for rebellious behaviors.
128
How did the lads subvert school norms according to Willis?
Manual Labour: Valued more than academic achievement.
Empowerment: Chose manual labour careers for immediate rewards over social mobility and hard work.
Awareness: Demonstrated awareness of indoctrination and chose not to partake in the school's meritocracy.
129
How does Willis's research contradict other theories?
1) Functionalists and Marxists: Contradicts the idea of false class consciousness and compliant workers, Willis's research contradicts this notion by showing that the working-class "lads" he studied were not passive recipients of ideology. Instead, they actively resisted and subverted school authority and capitalist values, demonstrating a critical awareness of their situation.
2) Agency: Lads were aware of indoctrination and demonstrated agency in their choices and actively chose to engage in behaviors that countered the school's objectives.
3) Meritocracy: Rejected the myth of meritocracy promoted by the education system. Willis's findings illustrate how the lads understood and critiqued this myth, recognizing that structural factors such as social class and economic background significantly shape educational outcomes and life opportunities.
130
How can Willis's research be applied to contemporary education?
Anti-School Subcultures: Continue to exist, particularly among working-class males.
Underachievement: Links to the concerns over the academic performance of working-class males.
Youth Crime: Connection between anti-school behavior, exclusions, and youth crime.
Negative Labels: Teachers may attach negative labels to working-class boys, impacting their achievement.
131
What are the methodological criticisms of Willis's research?
Hawthorne Effect: Lads may have acted up in Willis's presence to gain status among peers.
Romanticization: Willis may have romanticized the lads, seeing them as working-class heroes.
Objectivity: Potential impact on the objectivity of Willis's accounts.
132
What issues arise concerning the lads' demonstration of free will?
Previous Structural Forces: Unknown impact of earlier negative labeling and socialization.
Defense Mechanism: Choosing to fail may have been a defense mechanism to preserve self-esteem.
End Result: Despite rejecting meritocracy, the lads still ended up in working-class jobs.
133
What is the concept of role allocation by Davis and Moore?
Definition:
Purpose:
Role allocation refers to the process by which education sorts and sifts individuals based on their abilities to fill roles in society.
Ensures that the most skilled and capable individuals fill the highest positions in society, promoting efficiency and progress.
134
How does the education system sift and sort students according to Davis and Moore?
Based on Abilities:
Scientific vs. Interpersonal Skills:
Students are sorted into different educational paths based on their natural skills and skills.
Those with scientific aptitudes are guided toward scientific careers, while those with communication skills are directed toward people management roles.
135
What are the contemporary applications of Davis and Moore's role allocation in education?
Setting and Streaming: Students are divided into different sets or streams based on perceived ability.
University Admissions: Offers are made based on predicted academic performance.
Vocational Courses: Students with less academic ability are often directed toward vocational qualifications like BTECs or T Levels.
136
What are the Marxist criticisms of role allocation and meritocracy?
Myth of Meritocracy: Marxists argue that meritocracy is a myth designed to reinforce traditional class roles.
Legitimizing Inequality: Meritocracy shifts the blame for failure from the education system to the individual, ignoring systemic barriers like material deprivation and labeling.
137
What are the feminist criticisms of role allocation?
Gender Pay Inequality: Emphasis on traditional male professions leads to gender pay gaps.
Lower Status for Female-Dominated Industries: Professions like education and nursing, which are female-dominated, are given lower status despite requiring similar education levels to male-dominated industries.
138
What did Howard Becker find about teachers' perceptions of the ideal pupil?
Ideal Pupil Characteristics: Polite, submissive, hard-working, well-presented.
Class Bias: Middle-class students often fit this ideal, while working-class students do not.
Impact: Teachers' judgments based on non-academic traits like appearance and behavior.
139
What research supports the process of labeling?
Rosenthal and Jacobson: Field experiment showed that positively labeled "spurters" achieved more progress.
Cicourel and Kitsuse: Careers advice often based on perceived social class rather than academic ability.
Ray Rist: Found that students perceived as clever were rewarded, while disruptive ones were punished.
140
How does labeling persist in contemporary education?
Setting and Streaming: Lower groups suffer from lower self-esteem and underachievement.
Performance Targets: Can have both positive and negative impacts on student achievement.
Gifted and Talented Programs: Can motivate labeled students but demotivate others.
141
What is educational triage?
Definition: Prioritizing students based on their potential impact on school rankings.
Impact: High achievers and no-hopers are often ignored, while most attention goes to borderline cases.
142
How does pupil premium contribute to labeling?
Definition: Additional funding for disadvantaged students.
Impact: Can lead to closer monitoring and potentially detrimental effects on their achievement.
143
What are some evaluations of labeling theory?
Student Agency:
Intersectionality:
Combination of Factors:
Not all students passively accept labels (e.g., Paul Willis's research).
Different responses to labels based on ethnic and gender backgrounds (e.g., Fuller's research).
Labeling is influenced by both internal and external factors, showing higher-order analysis.
144
What is Attainment 8, and what are its methodological flaws?
Flaw:
Attainment 8 measures the average point score from a student's best eight GCSEs.
Grade 9 = 9 points, Grade 8 = 8 points, down to Grade 1 = 1 point.
Students not taking eight qualifications are scored zero for each missing qualification, affecting overall scores.
145
What are the performance trends among different ethnic groups in education?
High Performers:
Low Performers:
Notable Difference:
Caution: Avoid generalizing groups like "Asian" or "Black" in essays, as there are significant differences within these categories.
Chinese and Indian students.
Black Caribbean, Pakistani, and White students.
Black African students perform better than Black Caribbean and White students.
146
How does parental support in Asian families influence educational achievement?
Cultural Capital:
Support Levels:
Class Impact:
Indian and Pakistani parents promote educational capital for social mobility (Bhatti).
Higher levels of interest and support in children's education.
Even working-class Asian families emphasize the importance of higher education.
147
Why do Chinese students outperform other social groups academically?
Cultural Background:
Parental Support:
Educational Capital:
Family Investment:
High academic achievement is culturally ingrained (Francis).
Parents invest time and resources in children's education.
Valued as highly as economic capital.
Seen as a long-term investment for parents' support in old age
148
What explains the difference in achievement between Black African and Black Caribbean students?
Support Networks: Black African students benefit from strong family and community support.
Single-Parent Families: Higher percentage in Black Caribbean families, leading to less support (Sewell).
Middle-Class Investment: Middle-class Black parents invest highly in their children's education (Vincent).
149
What are the criticisms of early research on ethnic groups and educational achievement?
Early research was often based on stereotypes from the 1960s and 70s.
150
What is material deprivation in the context of educational experience?
Definition: Material deprivation is the inability to afford basic materials needed for academic success.
Impact: Affects students' ability to purchase computers, textbooks, hire private tutors, and pay for private schooling.
Broader Factors: Includes cumulative effects of poverty beyond educational resources.
151
Who suffers from material deprivation and how is it measured
Issues:
Statistics:
Ethnic Groups:
Often affects working-class students.
Free School Meals (FSM): Used to measure material deprivation.
FSM statistics underrepresent actual poverty levels.
Over 4.6 million children live in poverty; only 13.6% claim FSM.
45% of minority ethnic groups receive FSM; significant impact on white and mixed ethnicity students.
152
What are the impacts of material deprivation on access to educational resources?
Lack of Resources:
Cognitive Development:
Hidden Costs:
Inability to afford laptops, textbooks, private tutors, and educational toys.
Limited educational toys in early years affect cognitive development.
Uniforms, PE kits, school trips, travel, and lunches add financial stress.
153
How do overcrowded living conditions affect educational achievement?
Study Space:
Sleep Disturbances:
Health Issues:
Lack of private space for homework and studying.
Sharing rooms with siblings can lead to disturbed sleep.
Poor living conditions like dampness and lack of heating increase illness, leading to school absences.
154
How does part-time work influence educational achievement in low-income families?
Distraction:
Immediate Gratification:
Part-time jobs distract from studying.
Students may prioritize immediate financial rewards over long-term educational goals.
155
How do health and nutrition impact students from low-income families?
Poor Nutrition:
School Meals:
Food Insecurity: Increased usage of food banks affects students' well-being and school performance.
Reliance on cheap, processed foods affects concentration and health and also affect absence
Dependency on free school meals leads to issues like holiday hunger.
156
What are the impacts of caring responsibilities on educational achievement?
Young Carers:
376,000 young carers in the UK; responsibilities impact exam performance and attendance.
157
What government policies have been implemented to tackle material deprivation in education?
New Labour Initiatives:
Coalition Government Policies:
labour:
EMA: Provided £30 a week for education beyond 16.
Sure Start Centers: Assisted low-income parents and children.
Excellence in Cities: Additional funding for deprived schools.
Coalition:
Pupil Premium: Additional funding for students in deprived areas.
Universal Free School Meals: For first three years of primary education.
Issues: Reduction in eligibility for FSM.
158
What are the critical evaluations of material deprivation as a factor in educational achievement?
Validity Issues:
Minority Ethnic Groups:
Higher Order Evaluation:
FSM statistics may not fully represent material deprivation.
Material factors alone don't explain progress differences.
Understanding how external factors (e.g., material deprivation) influence internal factors (e.g., teacher perceptions) is crucial.
159
What do sociologists mean by parental attitudes in the context of education?
Definition:
Impact:
Differences:
Parental attitudes refer to the influence parents have over their child's education through socialization into their norms and values.
Children's attitudes towards education are shaped by the interest and support their parents show.
Variations exist in the interest levels and support offered by parents of different social classes.
160
How does a parent's own educational background influence their child's education?
Awareness and Influence:
Social Class Differences:
Parents' awareness of educational processes and their own educational experiences can significantly influence their child's education.
Middle-class parents often have more knowledge and time to invest in their child's early education compared to working-class parents.
161
What did Hyman and Sugarman suggest about the differences in educational achievement between social classes?
Middle-Class Values:
Working-Class Values:
Impact:
Optimism about education, deferred gratification, focus on long-term success, and individualism.
Fatalism, immediate gratification, present-time orientation, and collectivism.
Working-class values can lead to underachievement in education compared to middle-class values.
162
What did Douglas find regarding parental interest in education?
Parental Investment: .
Alienation:
Early Socialization:
Middle-class parents are more likely to attend parent-teacher meetings and participate in school activities
Working-class parents may feel alienated from the middle-class educational environment and may avoid participating.
Middle-class parents often have more time and knowledge to socialize their children into beneficial educational practices.
163
What did Feinstein find about parental support and aspirations?
Middle-Class Support:
Engagement:
Working-Class Support:
Higher aspirations for their children, more contact with schools, and higher expectations.
Middle-class parents are more demanding of teachers' time and more involved in their child's education.
Lower aspirations and less engagement with teachers and school activities.
164
How does the knowledge of education differ between middle-class and working-class parents?
Middle-Class Advantage:
Early Start:
Working-Class Disadvantage:
More likely to have attended university, understand the education system, and have disciplined approaches to education.
Middle-class parents are more likely to read parenting books, engage in learning activities, and provide a head start in preschool years.
Similar desire to support their children but lack the expertise and resources.
165
What are the criticisms of the generalizations about working-class and middle-class parenting styles?
Different, Not Inadequate:
Engagement:
Economic Position:
Working-class socialization is not inadequate, just different from middle-class norms, creating a disadvantage in the education system.
Many working-class parents are highly interested in their child's education but face more barriers.
Economic struggles make it harder for working-class families to defer gratification and plan for the future.
166
How does economic position affect the ability to defer gratification?
Middle-Class Comfort: Middle-class families meet their basic needs comfortably, enabling them to focus on future rewards.
Working-Class Struggles: Working-class families live paycheck to paycheck, making it difficult to defer immediate financial rewards.
167
What are some gender differences in subject choice?
Girls:
Boys:
A-level Choices:
Tend to excel in subjects requiring strong literacy skills and those in the arts and humanities.
Stereotypically pursue subjects in maths and sciences.
Girls have a broader range of subject choices, including science, social science, and art subjects. Boys focus more on maths and sciences.
168
How did the introduction of the National Curriculum in 1988 affect gendered subject choices?
Pre-1988:
Post-1988:
Boys and girls could be excluded from subjects not seen as part of their gender domain. Boys often took metalwork and woodwork; girls took typing and home economics.
The Education Reform Act removed gender-based restrictions, allowing greater subject choice regardless of gender.
169
How does gender socialization influence subject choice?
Traditional Socialization:
Toys and Books:
Changing Trends:
Girls are socialized to be more caring and expressive; boys to be more active and instrumental.
Boys receive construction toys and science kits; girls receive dolls and toys mirroring domestic labor.
Initiatives like "Let Toys Be Toys" aim to remove gendered boundaries in children's play
170
What did Collie suggest about gendered subject images in textbooks and course literature?
Masculine vs. Feminine:
Recent Changes:
Arts and literature are portrayed as feminine, while maths and science are seen as masculine.
Initiatives like GIST and WISE aim to make sciences more appealing to females by showing career pathways and offering internships.
171
How do gender identities shape subject choice according to Mitsos and Browne?
Literature and language are feminized, while scientific subjects are associated with practical and logical masculinity.
Boys monopolize (take control of) equipment in science and technology classes, reinforcing masculine domains.
172
How does the social construction of masculinity influence boys' subject choices?
Boys face division if they deviate from gender norms, leading them to choose subjects aligned with masculine identities.
Boys are more likely to gravitate towards subjects their male peers are studying.
173
What initiatives have been introduced to encourage gender balance in subject choices?
GIST and WISE: Encourage female participation in science and technology.
Sporting Initiatives: "This Girl Can" promotes female sports participation, increasing their visibility and acceptance.
174
How do contemporary views on gender affect subject choices and gender inequality in higher education?
Greater promotion of girls into masculine domains, but less promotion of boys into feminine domains.
Persisting in higher education, especially in sciences. Some fields like engineering, ICT, and physics are still seen as masculine.
175
What is vocational education?
Vocational education refers to education specifically tailored towards students entering employment directly.
It provides students with the skills and knowledge required for the workplace.
Contrasts with academic education, which prepares students for university.
176
How does vocational education fulfill Durkheim’s primary function of education?
Vocational education teaches specialist skills necessary for a skilled workforce.
Durkheim's idea is further developed by Schultz, suggesting education develops human capital to serve economic needs.
177
What are some examples of vocational programs in the UK?
BTECs and T-levels are common vocational qualifications.
These programs target specific skills needed in various industries.
178
How have UK governments developed vocational education over the past 40 years?
Thatcher Government:
New Labour:
Wolf Report:
Conservative Government:
Introduced Youth Training Scheme, GNVQs, and NVQs to upskill workers.
Modern apprenticeships were rebranded to reskill workers in long-term unemployment.
Focused on recruiting trained professionals and emphasized basic maths and English.
Introduced the apprenticeship levy in 2017 to fund vocational training programs.
179
How does vocational education impact contemporary schools?
Schools are broadening their subjects to include BTECs and T-levels.
Curriculum focused on key employment and academic skills.
Increased work experience programs and links with businesses.
180
What are some criticisms of vocational education policies?
Apprenticeships often offer little value to the apprentices, benefiting businesses more because they are seen as primarily benefiting the businesses that employ them.
Despite improvements, vocational education still has a lower status compared to traditional academic education pathways. This perception can lead to stigmatization and lower societal esteem for vocational training
181
What are anti-school subcultures?
Anti-school subcultures are groups with norms and values opposing those of the school.
Often form as a reaction to how members are treated within the school.
These subcultures are prevalent among working-class students but can overlap with gender and ethnicity-based subcultures.
182
Why do working-class students form anti-school subcultures?
Setting, streaming, and banding lead to differentiation and polarization.
Rejection by the education system creates a feeling of being in a "psychological prison."
Albert Cohen's concept of status frustration applies, where students adopt alternative status hierarchies due to lack of legitimate opportunities.
183
Differentiation:
Students are categorized into different groups based on their perceived academic abilities or potential. This differentiation can lead to divisions among students, reinforcing social hierarchies within the school environment.
184
Polarization:
As a consequence of differentiation, polarization occurs where students in lower ability groups (often dominated by working-class students) may experience stigmatization or marginalization compared to their peers in higher ability groups. This can create feelings of alienation, resentment, and a sense of exclusion among working-class students.
185
Symbolic Violence
Bourdieu, refers to the ways in which dominant groups impose and maintain their worldview, norms, and values upon others in a subtle and often unnoticed manner
186
How does symbolic violence contribute to the formation of anti-school subcultures?
The education system commits symbolic violence by rejecting working-class habitus in favor of middle-class values.
Working-class students seek status through symbolic capital by joining anti-school subcultures and deviating from school norms.
187
How do anti-school subcultures form according to Lacy?
Form due to bad treatment of working-class students through differentiation and polarization.
Students in lower sets feel rejected and gain recognition through deviant behaviour.
Middle-class students in higher sets conform to school norms, forming pro-school subcultures.
188
What did Paul Willis find in his study "Learning to Labor"?
Working-class students, "the lads," had anti-school attitudes due to recognizing the futility of education for their future.
Demonstrated agency and fatalistic attitudes, rejecting education as a legitimate means of success.
189
What did Martin McInerney find in his research on "macho lads"?
Found that excessive discipline led to subcultural attitudes.
"Macho lads" showed resistance to the education system and demonstrated agency in their actions.
Like Willis's lads, they rejected school norms as an act of resistance.
190
How do anti-school subcultures impact educational achievement?
Lead to educational underachievement as students reject education and seek status through deviant behavior.
Reinforce fatalistic attitudes, leading to demotivation and increased likelihood of disciplinary actions and exclusions.
191
What are some evaluations of the impact of anti-school subcultures?
Other factors like labeling, negative teacher-pupil interactions, and stereotyping contribute to subcultural formation.
Anti-school attitudes don't necessarily mean rejection of education (Fuller and Sewell).
Internal and external factors interplay in forming anti-school subcultures.
Not all students in anti-school subcultures fail; many conform later.
192
How can anti-school subcultures lead to further deviant activities?
Membership in anti-school subcultures can lead to involvement in criminal subcultures in wider society.
193
What are setting, streaming, and banding in education?
Setting: Placing students into ability groups for specific subjects (e.g., higher set for English, lower set for Maths).
Streaming: Placing students into streams based on overall perceived ability across all subjects.
Banding: Having more than one class for a subject, often not based on ability but on scheduling needs.
194
Which students are most affected by setting and streaming?
Working-class students:
Middle-class students:
Ethnic differences:
More likely placed in lower sets and streams or pushed towards vocational subjects.
More likely placed in top sets and steered towards academic achievement.
Chinese and Indian students often in top sets; African Caribbean and white working-class boys more likely in lower sets.
195
How does setting and streaming influence educational achievement?
Keddy's findings:
Lacy's findings:
Lower set students get less challenging work, lower tier exams, and are discouraged from high aspirations. Top set students receive challenging work, higher tier exams, and positive reinforcement.
Differentiation and polarization lead to pro and anti-school subcultures, with lower set students being demotivated and underachieving.
196
How are setting, streaming, and banding applied in contemporary education?
Persist in core subjects like Maths, English, and Sciences despite mixed ability classes showing better ___________.
Marketization:
Educational triage:
results
Leads to increased streaming to perform well in league tables.
Moving students to more achievable qualifications like BTECs to boost school performance.
197
What are the criticisms for setting and streaming?
Criticisms:
Stephen Ball:
Hargreaves:
Bowler:
Gilborn and youdal:
Removal of setting reduces anti-school subcultures.
Echoes Ball’s findings.
Lower sets seen as "psychological prisons."
Lower sets seen as a waste of time and resources.
198
What are gender differences in education related to the rise of feminism?
Girls outperform boys across all social groups regardless of ethnicity or social class.
Girls used to underachieve compared to boys due to socialization, teacher expectations, and traditional gender roles.
199
How did second wave feminism improve girls' achievement?
Equal Pay Act, Sexual Discrimination Act motivated girls to gain better qualifications.
Girls were socialized to be more assertive and dominant, aiming higher in education.
200
What initiatives were promoted to tackle gender stereotypes?
GIST: Girls in Science and Technology.
WISE: Women in Science and Engineering.
Goal: Break down gender barriers and support girls in fulfilling their potential.
201
What are the criticisms and evaluations of second wave feminism's impact?
Did not recognize inequalities among women, mostly benefited white women.
Still exists at 17% despite better qualifications for girls.
202
What role does an ethnocentric curriculum play in institutional racism?
Focus on white British history and culture.
Minority ethnic students feel excluded.
202
What research supports the claims of institutional racism in education?
Gillborn and Youdell:
Tariq Modood:
Crozier and Archer:
Lower expectations for black and working-class students.
Pakistani and black students disadvantaged in university admissions.
Racist behaviors lead to resistance cultures in minority ethnic student
202
What is institutional racism in the context of education?
Practices and procedures that disadvantage certain ethnic groups.
Based on assumptions, linked to stereotyping and labeling.
Minority ethnic students face more difficulties proving they do not conform to stereotypes.
202
How can we evaluate the claims of institutional racism in education?
Contradictory Evidence:
Multicultural policies and initiatives:
High achievement of Indian and Chinese students despite institutional racism.
Aimed at improving minority achievement acknowledge the existence of institutional racism and attempt to mitigate its effects through targeted programs and resources.
203
203
How do school policies and attitudes towards racist behavior contribute to institutional racism?
Cultural Differences: Punishments for cultural expressions (e.g., dreadlocks, teeth sucking).
Minority students feel rejected and demotivated.
203
