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Sociology - Methods in Context > Sources of Data > Flashcards

Sources of Data Flashcards

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1
Q

Are Questionnaires:
Primary / Secondary
Quantitative / Qualitative
Positivist / Interpretivist

A

Primary
Quantitative
Positivist

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2
Q

Are Interviews:
Primary / Secondary
Quantitative / Qualitative
Positivist / Interpretivist

A

Primary
Qualitative
Positivist - Structured
Interpretivist - Unstructured

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3
Q

Are Observations:
Primary / Secondary
Quantitative / Qualitative
Positivist / Interpretivist

A

Primary
Quantitative - Structured
Qualitative - Unstructured
Positivist - Structured
Interpretivist - Unstructured

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4
Q

Are Experiments:
Primary / Secondary
Quantitative / Qualitative
Positivist / Interpretivist

A

Primary
Quantitative
Positivists

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5
Q

Are Official Statistics:
Primary / Secondary
Quantitative / Qualitative
Positivist / Interpretivist

A

Secondary
Quantitative
Positivists

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6
Q

Are Documents:
Primary / Secondary
Quantitative / Qualitative
Positivist / Interpretivist

A

Secondary
Mostly Qualitative
Interpretivist

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7
Q

Description of a questionnaire

A

A standardised method which asks respondents pre-set questions

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8
Q

Different types of questionnaires

A
  • Self Completion - which are filled in by the respondent without a researcher present. these can be later picked up by the researcher, emailed or posted (postal questionnaire)
  • Formal interview - questionnaire can be read out by the researcher, who records the response of the respondent ex. Willmott and Young door knocking
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9
Q

2 main types of questions in questionnaires

A
  • Closed-ended (pre-coded questions) - respondents must choose from a limited range of possible answers that the researcher had decided in advance - Quantitative
  • Open-ended (coded during analysis) - Respondents are free to give whatever answer they wish in their own words - Quantitative
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10
Q

Research Design for questionnaires

A

Pilot Study - involves a draft version of the questionnaire to a small sample - this can help decide correct questions to ask and how to word them so invalid answers aren’t given and time and money isn’t wasted

Operationalising Concepts - process of converting a sociological concept into something we can measure - so we can devise the correct questions with the correct structure to measure the concept

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11
Q

Positivist views on questionnaires

A

They favour questionnaires as they achieve their main goals of reliability, generalisability and representativeness
- standardised questions and answers produce reliable data because other researchers can replicate
- pre-coded answers provide quantitative data to identify social facts
- often large scale so can be representative and generalised

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12
Q

Interpretivist views on questionnaires

A

They reject questionnaires because they impose the researchers framework of ideas on respondents. It fails to achieve their main goal of validity and verstehen. It’s quantitative data which doesn’t receive meanings from the individual.

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13
Q

Advantages of Self - Completion / Postal Questionnaires

A
  • no need to recruit and train interviewers
  • data usually easy to quantify
  • reliable - no researcher influence
  • if repeated it allows for comparisons
  • can identify causes
  • representative - large scale
  • quick and cheap
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14
Q

Disadvantages of Self-Completion / Postal Questionnaires

A
  • respondents can lie
  • low response rates
  • inflexible method
  • snapshot of social reality at one moment in time
  • the researcher cant be sure whether the respondent received it or whether it was completed/received by the correct person
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15
Q

Advantages of Formal Interviews (Questionnaires)

A
  • Data is usually easy to quantify
  • if repeated it allows for comparisons and reliable
  • can identify causes
  • representative - large scale
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16
Q

Disadvantages of Formal Interviews (Questionnaires)

A
  • respondents lie
  • inflexible method - researcher is stuck with the set questions
  • snapshot of social reality at one moment in time
  • researcher influence / bias
  • need to recruit and train interviewers
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17
Q

4 types of interviews

A
  • Structured / Formal
  • Unstructured / Informal
  • Semi - structured
  • Group
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18
Q

Describe structured/formal interviews

A

The interviewer is given strict instructions on how to ask questions. The interview is conducted in the same standardised way each time, asking the same exact questions word for word, in the same order, in the same tone and so on.
- very similar to questionnaires
- positivists favour as it collects quantitative data from which we can establish cause and effect and social facts

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19
Q

Describe unstructured/informal interviews

A

The interviewer has complete freedom to vary the questions, vary the wording, change the order and so on. They pursue whatever line of questioning seems appropriate at the time, asking follow up questions or probing more deeply

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20
Q

Describe semi-structured interviews

A

Each interview has the same set of questions but the interviewer can probe for more information if necessary.
Ex. follow up questions with ‘how do you mean’ - cicourel and kitsuse

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21
Q

Describe group interviews

A

Most interviews are one-to-one but some are groups with up to a dozen or so people being interviewed together
Ex. focus groups - the researcher asks the group to discuss certain topics and records their views

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22
Q

Advantages of structured interviews

A

-training interviewers is straight forward and inexpensive
- can be large-scale
- fairly cheap
- answers easily quantified - making them suitable for hypothesis testing
- high response rates - find it hard to turn down a face-to-face request - so more representative and easier to generalise
- reliable

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23
Q

Disadvantages of structured interviews

A
  • more costly than self-completion questionnaires ex. postal/email
  • not as large scale as potential scale of postal questionnaires
  • closed-ended questions are invalid
  • questions can be misinterpreted or not answered as the interviewer can’t expand/ clarify
  • Hawthorne Effect - can lie - invalid
  • Inflexible method
  • Snap shot
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24
Q

Advantages of Unstructured Interviews

A
  • informality allows for a rapport to be built which encourages truthful answers
  • no set questions produces fresh insights and valid data
  • reduced misinterpretation - interviewer can explain
  • highly flexible method
  • more useful for explaining unfamiliar topics
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25
Disadvantages of Unstructured Interviews
-smaller sample - less representative - hard to make generalisations - needs more thorough training- costs - interviewers need interpersonal skills to build that rapport - not reliable / difficult to replicate - difficult to quantify answers and see patterns - Hawthorne effect - invalid
26
Description of Observations (overall)
Observations seek to observe peoples actual behaviour and therefore aim to produce more valid results
27
Description of Interviews (overall)
Interviews involve a social interaction between the interviewer and interviewee.
28
6 types of observations
- Non - participant - Participant - Overt - Covert - Structured - Unstructured
29
Describe non-participant observation
The researcher simply observes the group/event without taking part. A detached observer. This can be overt or covert
30
Describe participant observation
The researcher takes part in a group / event / everyday life while observing it. This can be overt or covert
31
Describe Overt Observation
The researcher makes their true identity and purpose known to those being studied. The sociologist is open about what they're doing. Here they can gain informed consent
32
Describe Covert Observation
The study is carried out under-cover. The researchers real identity and purpose are kept concealed from the group being observed. The researcher takes on a false identity and role usually posing as a genuine member of the group.
33
Describe Structured Observation
- Highly structured methods using pre-categorised observational schedules ex. pre-determined behaviours to look for - Usually non-participant - Quantitative data - Positivist
34
Describe Unstructured Observation
This approach doesn't make assumptions in advance about what the key research issues will be. They start with a general aim and the data is built by the participants (inductive data) - Qualitative Data - Interpretivist
35
Advantages of unstructured participant observation
- Rich valid qualitative data - Verstehen - valid / authentic - Flexible / Open-minded Data - Allows for a rapport to be built - If covert it reduces Hawthorne Effect
36
Disadvantages of unstructured participant observation
- time consuming - more money - personally stressful/demanding (especially if covert) - requires interpersonal/observational skills - personal characteristics (age, gender) can restrict groups to study - many groups are difficult to access - if covert it raises serious ethical difficulties (Invasion of privacy) - small sample - unrepresentative and hard to generalise - not reliable - hard to replicate - risk of bias - too involved/loyal - Hawthorne effect - if overt - invalid - Harm to participant / researcher - getting in, contact, acceptance, getting out
37
Evaluation of non-participant observation
+ maintain objectivity +easy to take field notes - not experiencing it so may not understand it or misinterpret it
38
Evaluation of Structured Observation
+ Positivists favour - quantitative data, easy to analyse, easy to identify patterns and trends - Researcher bias - pre-determined behaviours
39
3 Observation Real Examples (mostly covert)
- Whyte - Street Corner Society - Griffin - Black Like Me - Patrick - Glasgow Gangs
40
Getting In - Staying In - Getting Out Describe the Getting in
MAKING CONTACT - making initial contact with the group may depend on interpersonal skills, connections or pure chance ACCEPTANCE - to enter to researcher must gain acceptance and trust, sometimes personal characteristics may be an obstacle DETERMINE ROLE AS OBSERVER -ideally you would want to not disrupt the groups normal patterns
41
Getting In - Staying In - Getting Out Describe the Staying In
'GOING NATIVE' - A danger is becoming over-involved (taking part in illegal activity) or over-identifying with the group so then the researcher becomes bias and stops becoming an objective observer and may not see activities as abnormal anymore so don't record it - Or the researcher remains detached to avoid bias but risks not understanding what they observe
42
Getting In - Staying In - Getting Out Describe the Getting Out
- The researcher can simply call a halt and leave or leave more gracefully if overt - The researcher may find that loyalty prevents them from fully disclosing everything they have learnt - ethical issues
43
Description of a laboratory experiment
The laboratory is any artificial environment where the researcher can manipulate all of the different variables to see what effect they have, determining cause and effect relationships in society. An experiment usually tests the variable being studied on an experimental group and compare its effect against a control group
44
Describe independent variable
the variable that is manipulated and changed by the researcher - possible causes
45
Describe dependent variable
the variable that is measured by the researcher - possible effects
46
Describe experimental group
subjects that have the variables tested on them
47
Describe control group
subjects that have no been tested on - used for comparison
48
Advantages of Laboratory Experiments
- standardised and can be replicated so highly reliable - a detached method - a controlled environment - increased validity - quantitative data - easy to determine cause and effect and social facts
49
Disadvantages of Laboratory Experiments
- small sample- not representative - can't study the past because you cant control past variables - lack of informed consent - deception / harm to participant - Hawthorne effect - not natural environment
50
Real Example of Laboratory Experiments
Bandura, Ross and Ross - The Transmission of Aggression through Imitation - Bobo dolls IV - video/exposure to video DV- childs behaviour CG- children not seeing the video EG- children seeing the video
51
Description of Field Experiments
The researcher manipulates 1 or more variables in the situation to see the effect. - It takes place in the subjects natural surrounding - usually covert so not Hawthorne effect
52
Real example of a Field Experiment
Rosenthal and Jacobsons study of Spurters IV- the label DV- childs performance/achievement CG- children not labelled as spurters EG- children labelled as spurters
53
Evaluation of Field Experiments
+ reduces Hawthorne effect + in natural surroundings so valid / realistic - the more realistic we make the situation the harder it is to control the variables -unethical if without consent
54
Description of Comparative Method
carried out in the mind of the sociologist - there is no experiment on real people - to discover cause and effect relationships
55
Real example of the Comparative Method
Durkheim's study of suicide His prediction that because Catholics are better at integration they would have lower levels of suicide than Protestants was later supported by official statistics
56
Evaluation of the Comparative Method
+avoids artificiality + can be used to study past events + poses no ethical problems + practical - no time/money +quantitative - shows patterns and trends - gives researchers less control of variables - based on the interpretation of the researcher - bias
57
Description of official Statistics
Official statistics are quantitative data gathered by the gov or other official bodies (trade unions, charities, businesses, churches). They gather them to use in policy making.
58
2 ways that the government collects official statistics
- Registration - eg. the law requires parents to register births - Official Surveys - eg. the census or general household survey
59
Advantages of Official Statistics
- free - no time/money - practical/efficient - allow for comparisons - collected at regular intervals so can show patterns over time - can be large scale - easy to generalise and representative - usually gathered in a standardised way so reliable
60
Disadvantages of Official Statistics
- Not collected for the specific purpose of their research so can be irrelevant / invalid - Sociologists could interpret the meaning of the statistics wrong - can see patterns but there are no meanings
61
Description of documents
Documents refer to any written text ex. diaries, reports, records, letters, statements
62
3 types of Documents
Public Documents - produced by organisations like the government and schools etc. Personal Documents - first person accounts of events or experiences Historical Documents - A personal or public document created in the past
63
Four criteria of Accessing Documents
- Authenticity - Credibility - Representativeness - Meaning
64
Advantages of Documents
- sometimes the only source of info - offer an extra check on primary data - cost and time effective - Interpretivists - gives rich qualitative data
65
Disadvantages of Documents
Positivists reject documents because they fail to meet their main goal - unstandardised, unreliable, unrepresentative - research can interpret them in their own way - can't identify patterns and trends
66
Positivist view on Official statistics
a valuable source because they are social facts. Positivists will often use them to test their hypothesis to prove or disprove it. Helps them achieve their research aim including quantitative data, objectivity and representativeness. ex. Durkheims Study of Suicide
67
Interpretivist View on Official Statistics
it lacks validity because they are socially constructed and barely represent the labels that some people give to the behaviour of others. They are not useful because they want to understand individuals meanings and feelings and be subjective. ex. Atkinson's Study of Suicide

Sociology - Methods in Context (1 decks)

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