South Africa 1968-83 Flashcards
(114 cards)
1
Q
What was ‘Black Consciousness’
A
A movement which argued black people should lead themselves, and needed to rethink their own position in society and liberate their own minds
2
Q
cWhat was SASO, who founded it and why was it formed
A
South African Students Organisation, a group that expressed liberal, non-racial views, based at Turfloop University.
It was founded by Steve Biko after his old university political group, NUSAS, was banned from hosting their black delegations at the University of Natal, which the students attended
3
Q
What did Black Consciousness mean for Africans
A
It made Black people feel assured in their race, and created a sense of self-definition of themselves as a people. It also popularised the use of the term ‘Black’, derived from Black Americans, as opposed to the NP-named term ‘Bantu’
4
Q
What year was the Black Consciousness Movement officially set up
A
1972
5
Q
How did SASO capitalise on continental events to promote their ideology
A
Much of Africa was experiencing military coups, including Mozambique, and SASO used this to organise rallies for liberation in SA
6
Q
Why did SASO become a threat to the NP
A
They were a growing group who were unafraid to make direct speeches and criticise Apartheid
7
Q
How did the government crack down on SASO and what month
A
In March 1973, banning orders were given against its leaders such as Biko
8
Q
What happened to SASO in 1975
A
9 SASO members (the SASO 9) were arrested and trialled under the Terrorism Act. As SASO wasn’t an illegal group, the media were allowed to quote their black consciousness views in their publications and therefore it created lots of publicity for SASO
9
Q
How had schools changed for Black children up to the mid 1970s
A
Schools became sites of expectation and deprivation, and therefore they left room for political potential. There were also far more children in schools than before
10
Q
From 1950-75, the number of African children at school increased from _______ to _______
A
From 1950-75, the number of African children at school increased from 1 million to 3.5 million
11
Q
From 1972-1976, high school numbers in Soweto alone rose from ____ to ____
A
1972: 12,600
1976: 34,000
12
Q
What two main groups did High School Students face in Soweto
A
The Racist Government and the Violent Tsotsis
13
Q
Name 3 examples of violent street gangs in Soweto
A
- the Hazels
- the Dirty Dozen
- the Bandidos
14
Q
What Act changed the language of teaching to Afrikaans in some subjects and what year
A
Afrikaans Mediums Decree, 1974
15
Q
Name 2 subjects that was taught in Afrikaans as a result of the Afrikaans Medium Decree 1974
A
Maths, (any social science)
16
Q
Why were students upset at having to be taught in Afrikaans instead of English
A
They saw it as the language of the oppressor, whilst they saw English as the language of advancement in society
17
Q
Describe the Soweto Uprising (DMY)
A
16th June 1976, 2000 schoolchildren marched through Soweto in protest to being taught in Afrikaans. The police opened fire on the children, and set dogs on them. 176 people were said to have died, but it could have been over 700.
18
Q
How did the people of Soweto react to the massacre
A
They were furious and attacked government buildings, barricaded off areas and killed 2 officials. The government responded with force and Soweto was in conflict for days.
19
Q
How did other Black people in SA react
A
They were also angry, and attacked and burned down anything Afrikaner related, leading to armed struggle all over the country for weeks.
20
Q
How many young people had to leave the country in exile after causing violence and damages in 1976-77 after the Soweto Uprising
A
4,000
21
Q
Where did most of these people exile themselves to and why
A
Lusaka, Zambia - this was the foreign base of the ANC so many moved here to join the ANC or MK
22
Q
What happened to Steve Biko in 1973 (4 details)
A
- Banned from SASO
- Forced to live in Kingwilliamstown
- Movements were restricted
- Banned from attending political meetings
23
Q
Including dates, describe the events of Steve Biko’s death
A
In August 1977, Biko left Kingwilliamstown and therefore broke his banning order. He was arrested, interrogated and severely beaten. This brought him close to death, so he was driven to a prison hospital in Pretoria where he died on the 12th September 1977
24
Q
Who challenged the police statement on Biko’s death and how
A
Biko’s friend, White reporter Donald Woods. He produced evidence such as Biko saying he’d never commit suicide and the photographs taken in the morgue, proving Biko had likely been beaten to death in police care
25
What did the police say about the death of Biko
They claimed he died to a hunger strike whilst in custody
26
How did the international community react to the death of Steve Biko
They strongly disapproved, especially in the West
27
What was significant about the funeral of Steve Biko
Over 10,000 attended, including Foreign Ambassadors, and became a mass sign of support for Steve Biko
28
What two military campaigns did the MK undergo while in exile (and year)
Wankie - 1967
Sipolilo - 1968
29
Describe the Wankie and Sipolilo campaigns
Trained MK guerilla fighters tried to create a route through Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) and got into a number of skirmishes along the way. They won many but eventually some of them got destroyed by Rhodesian forces whilst the others had to escape to Botswana
Sipolilo lasted longer than Wankie but resulted in heavier losses
30
Who created a memorandum accusing the ANC of becoming globetrotting middle class men who cared more about money and reputation than helping the AA cause
Chris Hani, survivor of the Wankie Campaign
31
Who did Chris Hani's memorandum criticise in particular and why
ANC leader Joe Modise - they thought he was undemocratic and was more occupied with 'mysterious business enterprises' than fighting Apartheid
32
Who diffused tensions between MK leadership and MK fighters and what did they do
Oliver Tambo - He took personal blame for the failures of the two campaigns and expelled the youthful rebels from the ANC
33
Where was a major ANC conference held in 1969
Morogoro, Tanzania
34
What happened at the Morogoro Conference
- Tambo resigned but was immediately reelected
- The ANC decided to accept people of all races
- They adopted a 'strategy and tactics' plan which affirmed armed struggle, but also called the need for political leadership and unity
- The youthful rebels like Hani were reinstated
35
Who reacted badly to the idea of the ANC accepting all races and what did they do immediately after the meeting. What ended up happening to them later (Y)
Tennyson Makiwane, a senior ANC member, who left and with his followes started a rival movement which eventually rejoined the ANC. Makiwane himself was eventually assassinated in 1980 after joining the Transkei Homeland Government
36
What campaign relating to sports was set up against SA after the Basil D'Oliveira events
the Stop the Seventy Tour
37
What was the target of the Stop the Seventy Tour and how successful were they
They first targeted the 1969-70 South African Rugby tour of the UK and Ireland. The tour was disrupted with pitch invasions and mass demonstrations but the tour continued to the end
38
Name two major people involved in the Stop the Seventy Tour
Peter Hain (later UK Labour Minister) organised the protests
Gordon Brown (later PM) attended a demonstration in Edinburgh
39
What happened to cricket in SA following the Stop the Seventy Tour
The 1970 tour to the UK was cancelled and SA were expelled from international test cricket
40
What campaign emerged in New Zealand regarding sport and SA
Halt All Racist Tours - successfully campaigned to SA bringing a white-only team to play in NZ
41
What major agreement discouraged all signatories from playing SA in any sporting capacity, and what year. Who signed this?
Gleneagles Agreement, 1977, signed by many Commonwealth countries
42
What changes did the Conservative government make in 1970 regarding economic activity with SA
Withdrew from the UN arms boycott and made economic relationships closer than ever to follow a policy or 'constructive engagement'
43
Define Constructive Engagement
A policy employed by the Conservative Government to increase trade with SA. The idea was that economic trade and influence would force SA businesses to improve wages and conditions for black workers
44
Name one group who believed Constructive Engagement would be good for ending Apartheid and one group who believed it would be bad and why
For: Liberals in SA - thought improving the economy would force a dependence on Black people and allow more liberties
Against: AAM - Thought it was a way for the UK and TNC's to profit by exploiting cheap, unfair Black Labour
45
Who sold their holdings in companies with interests in SA to fight Apartheid in 1972?
World Council of Churches
46
Why were Black people able to be so disruptive to the SA economy in the 1970s
Black people were the majority of:
- Gold, Coal and Uranium Miners
- Domestic Servants
- Farmers
- Factory Workers
This meant they could effectively stop SA industry and SA could neither export or self-provide if the Black workers stopped working
47
How many Black farmers were there in 1976
1.5 million
48
How many Black factory workers were there in 1976
1.6 million
49
What was the name of the major trade union federation aligned to the ANC and how successful were they
SACTU (South African Congress of Trade Unions) - they peaked with 50,000 members in the early 1960's but eventually fell off in membership because of state repression
50
Give an example of a Trade Union strike in the 1970s (year)
Black bus drivers working for PUTCO (who operated buses from townships to workplaces) went on strike in 1972
51
Give 3 examples of new non-racial trade unions in the 1970s
- SFAWU (Sweet, Food and Allied Workers Union)
- MAWU (Metal and Allied Workers Union)
- Food and Canning Workers
52
What federation did many new trade unions combine into (and what year)
FOSATU (Federation of South African Trade Unions)
1979
53
What did FOSATU advocate for and where was its main support
It advocated for shop floor organisation and internally democratic practices
54
Give an example of a strike by a Trade Union in FOSATU which became national
African Men and Coloured Women went on strike at Fattis and Monis bakery for union recognition and higher wages. It became massive with support from the Food and Canning Workers and people boycotted Fattis and Monis products in supermarkets all over the country
55
Why did the ANC regain popularity around 1979
The ideas of non-racialism became popular and propaganda from people such as Winnie Mandela and those previously imprisoned on Robben Island with Mandela who had been released boosted the ANC more
56
What was COSAS and how did it increase ANC popularity
Congress of South African Students
It was set up to coordinate school protests nationally, but its first leader was a secret ANC supporter and pushed COSAS and therefore students in this direction
57
What did COSAS commit itself to which reinforced ANC ideas to students across the country
It committed to the Freedom Charter
58
Who created the 'Release Mandela' slogan and in what year
the Sunday Post in 1980
59
Give an example of a Trade Union which increased ANC support (and how)
SAAWU (South African Allied Workers Union) which declared support for Charterism and secretly recruited young people to the MK
60
What was Charterism
An ideology meaning you are in agreement with the Freedom Charter - it implies ANC support given they created the charter, but declaring ANC support explicitly was dangerous so charterist was a good loophole
61
When was the Liberal Party founded in SA, how popular was it and what was its main demographic. why was it significant
1953, mostly made up of middle class educated people. It was not popular at all but marked the birth of liberalism in SA
62
When was the (liberal) Progressive Party formed and who by
It was formed by 11 members of the UP, including Helen Suzman, in 1959
63
How many seats did the Progressive Party have in 1961 vs in 1974
1961: 1
1974: 7
Both small but there were improvements
64
What happened to the United Party from 1974 - 1977 (include number of seats)
In 1974, the UP were still the main opposition to the NP and had 41 seats in 1974. However, after losing the 1974 elections, they lost all direction and didn't know how to compete with the NP. Many members joined the Progressive Party, and the UP dissolved in 1977
65
What was the Progressive Party Strategy from 1978-1986
They recruited their leader Frederik van Zyl Slabbert who was an Afrikaner himself to convince Afrikaners to switch sides
66
How successful was Frederik van Zyl Slabbert (include seat wins 1981)
He was initially successful, and won 26 seats in 1981. However, he reached out to many Black leaders which was a step too far for white voters who weren't willing to go that liberal, and Progressive Support never recovered
67
Who became PM in 1978
P.W. Botha
68
Throughout the 1970s, homeland revenues increased from ____ to ____
R120 million to R520 million
69
How did Bantustan investment change in the 1970s and why
It increased largely due to the rise in revenues from gold mining
70
Give 2 examples of why spending in Bantustans were considered wasteful and not that useful
- They invested their money into building 10 capitals (1 per homeland) which cost a lot and wasn't that necessary
- They built a redundant international airport in Ciskei which was hardly used due to its proximity to East London's better international airport
71
Name 3 examples of how spending in Bantustans helped local populations
- Cheap rent and services like electricity in KwaZulu-Natal
- 5 new universities
- Successful irrigation projects benefitting farmers
72
Name 3 examples of resistance in Bantustans in the 1970s
- Buthelezi, KwaZulu leader, criticised the government frequently
- MK successfully recruited in many rural towns
- Universities like Fort Hare and Turfloop continued to be breeding grounds for anti-Apartheid groups
73
What was a major problem with the leadership of Bantustans
As the leaders of Bantustans often weren't supervised, personal power and corruption became rampant
74
Name an example of a family that benefitted financially from their position in power in a named Bantustan
The Matanzima family, of which Kiase Matanzima was the leader of Transkei, had large interests in many hotels and casinos and used his government power to make money off them
75
What is balkanisation and was this successful for the NP and why
Balkanisation - The process of splitting the country into smaller units (Bantustans)
It was mostly successful:
It reduced conflict between ethnic groups by creating a shared African nationalism. People became slightly wealthier due to Bantustan investment and it left people content enough with Bantustans, and not as concerned with government
However, it was very wasteful of public funds and very expensive
76
What 2 groups emerged within the NP that had opposing views
Verligtes and Verkramptes
77
What 3 things did Verligtes advocate for, and what 2 improvements did they think this would make to SA
Wanted better training for black workers and the recognition of black trade unions, as well as wanting more opportunities for Black middle class people who lived in cities. They thought this would appease Black people to stop rebelling and would improve the economy
78
What did Verkramptes believe in
More segregation and harsher enforcement of Apartheid
79
Was Vorster a Verligte or Verkrampte
Verkrampte
80
Why did Vorster not run for PM in 1978
He was too old and ill to lead the country
81
Who did Vorster want to run SA when he resigned and what did he do about this
He wanted to be replaced by Dr Connie Mulder, head of government propaganda and Transvaal Nationalists. He secretly gave Mulder a fund to wage a propaganda campaign both inside and outside of SA
82
What did Connie Mulder do using his secret funds (2 employees and newspaper name)
Employed two men called General van de Burgh (head of Security) and Eschel Rhoodie (journalist) to help his propaganda campaign.
They published magazines such as The Citizen and led smear campaigns against liberals and opposition
83
What happened to Mulder, Van de Burgh and Rhoodie
Newspapers found out about the secret funds and published about Mulder's corruption and it was christened the 'information scandal'
As a result, Van de Burgh and Rhoodie resigned. Mulder never recovered from the backlash and lost the vote for NP leader in the 1978 elections and lost leadership of the Transvaal Nationalists
84
Give the outcome of the 1978 NP elections in terms of votes
Botha 98 - 74 Mulder
85
Why did the economy of SA falter in the 1970s (2 reasons)
The Oil Crisis of 1973 meant oil prices doubled, which SA was reliant on
Furthermore, the Black population was rapidly rising and the White population was rising much more slowly, so the proportion of people who were allowed to work in skilled jobs fell year on year
86
What did the massive rise in the Black population mean for SA
The population became much younger, there was mass movement to cities creating slums, and unemployment surged
87
Give two examples of mass informal settlements in cities and their populations
Winterveld (north of Pretoria)
Khayelitsha (near Cape Town Airport)
Both housed about 500,000 people
88
Why was the massive increase in informal settlements a huge problem for the NP
Numbers were so high they could not really stop migration to these slums or enforce laws such as pass laws there
89
What 2 areas did Botha address in his reforms after becoming PM
Socioeconomic and Constitution
90
Was Botha a Verligte or Verkrampte
Verligte
91
What was the international context for Botha's economic reforms
Neoliberalists Reagan and Thatcher were in power and promoted free markets
92
What economic reforms did Botha make
- Commissioned the de Lange commission which advocated for a gradual equalisation of education expenditure for both races
- Increased the security of African workers and their ability to move into skilled jobs
- Offered to recognise African Trade Unions if they followed certain regulations
- Advocated for opportunities to create a Black Urban Elite
93
What social reforms did Botha make
- Recognised that African urbanisation was inevitable and irreversible
- In 1979 allowed African people to secure long term property leases in the cities
- Deracialised the National Football League (less impact as Afrikaners preferred rugby)
94
What early change did Botha make to government (and year) which was a step towards his major reforms
1980: Set up an advisory council called the President's Council (included White, Coloured and Indian People)
95
What new system did Botha create in 1983, and what did it involve
Tricameral Parliament:
- Made up of three parliaments: The White, Coloured, and Indian. They could all pass laws relating to their 'own affairs', but the White Parliament was most powerful
- Made Botha President rather than PM
96
What group split away from the NP as a result of Botha's Reforms, and who led them
The Conservative Party, which thought the NP was becoming too soft. It was led by A.P. Treurnicht, who was the leader of the Transvaal Nationalists, replacing Connie Mulder
97
How successful were the Conservative Party (seats)
They were popular during the 80s and achieved a peak of 22 seats, overtaking the Progressive Party and becoming the official opposition to Apartheid
98
What was the 'laager mentality'
The mentality of Afrikaners cutting themselves off from the outside world
99
How much did Vorster follow the laager mentality (3 hard facts)
He did not at all:
- Made loans available to main African countries like Lesotho and eSwatini
- Received over 40 representatives from African countries in Pretoria in the 1970s
- Toured West Africa in 1974-1975, meeting with the leaders of Cote D'Ivoire and Liberia
100
What was the difference in foreign policy between Vorster and Botha
Botha was a lot more aggressive in winning regional power and influence and took a closer eye on foreign events
101
What major event in a European Country massively changed regional affairs for SA
The 1974 Carnation Revolution overthrew Portugal's fascist dictatorship and this led to the 1975 independence of a variety of African countries, of which Angola and Mozambique were particularly relevant to SA
102
What occurred in Mozambique in 1977 and how and why did SA intervene (name all parties involved)
There was a civil war between the Marxist Government (FRELIMO) and the Anti-Communist Rebels (RENAMO). SA supported Renamo to reduce communist influence in the area and to destabilise the government making it unsafe for the ANC and MK to create bases there
103
What occurred in Angola from 1975 and how and why did SA intervene
There was a civil war between the Marxist Government (MPLA) and the rebels (UNITA). SA was concerned that SWAPO (the movement attempting to gain Namibian independence) would set up a base in Angola so SA sent support to UNITA to bring down the sympathetic marxists and militarised Namibia's northern border.
104
What occurred in Zimbabwe throughout the 1970s, how and why did SA intervene
The White minority rule led by Ian Smith was in conflict with Black liberation groups, of which ZANU emerged as the most threatening. SA funded the survival of Smith's regime, but recognised that it would eventually fall. When Smith was forced to allow democratic elections leading to Robert Mugabe taking power, he appreciated SA not undermining his rise to power, he didn't allow the ANC or PAC to set up bases or large presences in Zimbabwe. SA let this happen as they would rather Mugabe in power than communists and funding Smith became too expensive
105
How did SA arm themselves as a reaction to the new potential threats around them
- They made large investments into their own arms industry, under a government corporation called Armscor
- By 1982, 80% of its arms were self-made
- It also increased arms trade and relationships with France and especially Israel for bonus support
106
What group in 1980 was formed among (how many) countries to counter Apartheid
SADCC (Southern African Development Coordination Conference)
Formed by 9 countries in order to create less dependence on SA
107
Where were the best places for the SADCC to host meetings and the ANCC
Port cities in Mozambique like Beira
108
How did SA counter 3 countries usefulness in the SADCC
- Swaziland signed a non-aggression pact with SA in 1982
- Lesotho had been persuaded against hosting the ANC
- Mozambique was so crippled by civil war that it signed the Nkomati Accord ending their 'usefulness' against Apartheid
109
What was the Nkomati Accord and what year was it signed
1984 - It was a deal between Mozambique and SA saying that if SA would stop supporting RENAMO (opposition to government in civil war) if they stopped hosting the ANC
110
What campaign did the AAM launch in 1974 and what was its aim?
SATIS (South Africa, The Imprisoned Society) Campaign
It wanted to focus its propaganda on individuals rather than the whole cause as it garnered more attention
111
Who did SATIS focus on and what was their story
Solomon Mahlangu - A Soweto inhabitant in fled SA in 1976 to train with the MK before returning in 1977. Him and some of his associates were identified by the government, and following a shootout, 2 civilians died. The police blamed this on Mahlangu who was hung in 1979.
112
Why did SATIS choose Mahlangu
He was a 20 year old from Soweto, part of the new generation they wished to win over. He was seen as a hero amongst the common person
113
What happened for Mandela's 60th birthday in 1978, and why was this significant?
3,000 sent him birthday cards, including the Labour cabinet. AAM released stories, biographies, and photos of Mandela. This made people in countries like the UK feel connected and supportive of Mandela and there became a huge international demand to free him
114
When and where was a Nelson Mandela Birthday concert organised
1983, at Alexandra Palace
