Speech language communication and literacy development in children Flashcards
(347 cards)
1
Q
What is child development? 4 points
A
Changing through the span of childhood
- Growth by maturation (linked to biology, not controlled)
- Learning through experience (interactions with people affects actions and feelings)
- Cognitive development
2
Q
How do you become an expert in child development? 5 points
A
Describe observation
Apply strategies to promote children’s development, keeping relevant to skill level
Explain cause and effects of why children grow and behave as they do, acknowledging complexity
Understanding interrelated systems
Holistic development and child as a whole person
3
Q
What are the 6 inter-related systems within child development?
A
Motor sensory and physical development (gross and fine skills)
Sensory
Lang and comm development
Cognition
Emotional + personality
Social + morality
4
Q
Define speech
A
Physical sounds made, intelligibility, fluency
5
Q
Define expressive language
A
How language is used (verbal or written)
6
Q
Define receptive language
A
Understanding and comprehension
7
Q
Define communication
A
Information transmitted/received in a social context, giving words meaning
8
Q
Define phonology
A
Study of the system of meaningful sounds (how they are organised and used to encode meaning)
9
Q
What is phonological awareness?
A
Ability to identify and manipulate sounds in spoken language
10
Q
Define semantics
A
Words used in combination for meaning
Very broad, children make + find meaning
11
Q
Define grammar
A
Structure of language needed for constructing ambiguous sentences
Includes syntax and morphemes
12
Q
Define pragmatics
A
Understanding and using language appropriately in different social contexts
13
Q
Define syntax
A
How words + morphemes combine to form larger units (phrases/sentences)
14
Q
What are the 2 components of speech?
A
Speech
Phonological awareness
15
Q
What are the 7 components of language?
A
Vocabulary
Categories
Concepts
Phrases/sentences
Comprehension
Inference
Extended sentences
16
Q
What are the 3 components of social communication?
A
Turn taking
Friendship skills
Conversation skills
17
Q
What are the 2 different models of communication in children?
A
Content form and use
Means reasons and opportunuties
18
Q
What is ‘content’ in the content form and use model?
A
Using the right words to convey a message
- concepts
- links
- sequencing
19
Q
What is ‘form’ in the content form and use model?
A
Intelligibility, putting words together in a grammatical sentence
20
Q
What is ‘use’ in the content form and use model?
A
making use of language for a purpose in context
- eg: greeting, debating
21
Q
What is the means, reasons, and opportunities model?
A
Means: how we communicate
Reasons: why we communicate
Opportunities: where, when and with whom we communcate
22
Q
What does the communication chain do?
A
Breaks down all of the steps involved in communicating and receiving a message
23
Q
What are the 8 steps in the communication chain?
A
Receptive lang
1. Looking and interpreting non-verbal communication
2. Listening/hearing
3. Auditory memory
4. Understand words
5. Understand sentences
Expressive lang
6. Use of vocab
7. Use of grammatical sentences
8. Articulation
24
Q
What are the 7 blocks of the speech pyramid?
A
25
What is Bloom's model of intentionality?
Effort and engagement motivates language acquisition
26
What is Tomasello's usage based approach?
Have inventory of constructions linked to pragmatic + semantic functions, which is communicated
Meaning is use- structure of language emerges from use
27
How do constructions in Tomasello's usage-based approach vary?
Range from abstract + flexible, to concrete and inflexible
28
What does Tomasello say the slow process of construction is driven by?
Intention reading (pragmatics)
Pattern finding
29
What is Chapman's interactionist approach?
Motor + cognitive + social learning = precursors to new linguistic forms
Acquisition of language leads to development in other spheres
- new meanings expressed by existing behaviours/ language
- new forms of communication emerge to express known meanings
30
What is Chomsky's nativist approach?
Children uniquely preprogrammed to learn language, as have language acquisition device- can recognise structure + grammar
31
What are the 8 stages of Erikson's psychosocial theory?
32
What happens at each stage of Erikson's psychosocial theory?
Has a different psychosocial crisis of 2 conflicting forces
Unresolved challenges resurface as problems later
33
What does the trust vs mistrust stage (1) of the psychosocial theory look at?
Are basic needs (safety, comfort, care) met by the caregiver
34
What does the autonomy vs shame/doubt stage (2) of the psychosocial theory look at?
Do children have a secure base from which they can assert independence
35
What does the initiative vs guilt stage (3) of the psychosocial theory look at?
Are children encouraged to make appropriate choices, or dismissed as silly
36
What does the industry vs inferiority stage (4) of the psychosocial theory look at?
Are children praised, or ridiculed/punished
37
What does the identity vs role confusion stage (5) of the psychosocial theory look at?
Do teens develop identity, or have an identity crisis, in the turning point from childhood to adulthood
38
What does the intimacy vs isolation stage (6) of the psychosocial theory look at?
Are young adults ready for LT commitment to intimate + reciprocal relationships, if identity is established
39
What does the generativity vs stagnation stage (7) of the psychosocial theory look at?
Do adults contribute to society or are they self-centred
40
What does the integrity vs despair stage (8) of the psychosocial theory look at?
Do adults feel accomplished and successful, or unaccomplished and unproductive
41
What is Watson and Skinner's behaviourist theory concerned with?
Directly observable and measurable aspects of human behaviour
All behaviour learned / unlearned
How the world shapes people
42
What is classical conditioning?
Learning when a NS becomes associated with a stimulus that naturally produces a behaviour
43
What is operant conditioning?
Positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Punishment
44
What is Bandura's triadic reciprocal determinism?
Behaviour influences the person and environment, in turn affecting behaviour and each other
45
What is Bandura's social cognitive theory?
Learning by observing and interacting with others
Encompasses attention, memory, and motivation in learning
When observing a model performing a behaviour and consequences, sequence of events is remembered, and guides subsequent behaviours
46
What does Piaget's cognitive theory look at?
First to conduct systematic observation of children to study cognition
Genetic epistemology: study of origins and development of knowledge
47
What is adaption (Piaget)?
Building schemes via direct interaction with environment
assimilation - use current schemes to interpret world
accommodation - create/adapt schemes if it doesn't match
48
What happens as children progress through Piaget's stages of cognitive development?
Children demonstrate new intellectual abilities and increasingly complex understanding of the world
49
Can Piaget's stages of cognitive development be skipped?
No, a precise sequence
But can exhibit behaviours of >1 stage at a time
50
What are the 4 stages proposed by Piaget in his cognitive theory, and the approximate ages at which they occur?
Sensorimotor: 0-2y
Preoperational: 2-7y
Concrete operational: 7-11y
Formal operational: 11+y
51
Describe the sensorimotor stage of development
Intelligence is practical
All interactions are sensory or motor
Constant experimentation and learning through trial and error
Develop object permanance
52
Describe the preoperational stage of development
Logic based on personal knowledge, not conventional knowledge
Egocentrism: unable to take perspective of others
Advances in mental representations: make-believe play, drawings, naming objects, symbols
53
Describe the concrete operational stage of development
Deals with abstract concepts
More organised thinking
Employs memory strategies
Understands conservation
Decentration
Increased awareness of hierarchies of classification
Spatial reasoning
54
Describe the formal operational stage of development
Systematic + logical reasoning -> formulate hypotheses (hypo-deductive reasoning)
Improved decision making
55
What is Vygotsky's sociocultural theory?
Emphasis on rich social/cultural contexts, need interaction with adults/older peers to advance development
Language as a foundation for higher cognitive development
56
According to Vygotsky, how is language linked to profound changes in cognition?
Private speech / egocentric speech
- self-guidance during challenging tasks
- internalised as silent inner speech when older
57
What is the zone of proximal development (ZPD), by Vygotsky?
Difference between child's existing abilities, and what they can learn under guidance
58
What is intersubjectivity, according to Vygotsky?
Process of 2 people who begin a task with different understandings, arriving at a shared understanding
59
What is scaffolding (Vygotsky)?
Adults guiding children through ZPD
Eventually withdraw support
60
What is guided participation (Vygotsky)?
Assisting children in activities
61
Why did Vygotsky believe about make-believe play?
Vital force for cognitive development
Influential ZPD as children advance by tryng out challenging skills (eg: social roles)
62
What is Case's neo-Piagetian theory?
Changes within and between stages of development
Continuum of acquisition
Accounts for unevenness in development
63
What is Siegler's model of strategy choice?
Highlights experimentation + selection of mental strategies
Accounts for diversity and changing nature of children's thinking
64
What does Maslow's humanistic theory look at?
Examines the whole person and their uniqueness
65
What does Maslow's hierarchy of needs say?
People are motivated to meet needs, but some take precedence
Needs lower must be satisfied before needs higher up
66
What are the 5 needs in Maslow's hierarchy?
Physiological needs
Safety needs
Social/love/belongingness needs
Esteem needs
Self-actualisation needs
67
What are the 3 extra stages in the revised hierarchy of needs?
Cognitive needs- knowledge + understanding, curiosity, purpose
Aesthetic needs- appreciation + search for beauty
Transcendence needs- motivated by values beyond personal self (eg: religion)
68
What is Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory?
Human development influenced by different types of environmental systems (contexts)
69
What are the 5 different systems in Brofenbrenner's ecological theory?
Microsystem
Mesosystem
Exosystem
Macrosystem
Chronosystem
70
What is the mesosystem (ecological theory)?
Relationships between environments
71
What is the microsystem (ecological theory)?
Immediate envrionemnt, direct social interactions
72
What is the exosystem (ecological theory)?
Indirect environments
73
What is the macrosystem (ecological theory)?
Social and cultural context
74
What is Gardener's theory of multiple intelligences?
9 types of intelligence...
1. Verbal/linguistic
2. Logical/mathematical
3. Visual/spatial
4. Bodily/kinaesthetic
5. Musical
6. Interpersonal
7. Intrapersonal
8. Naturalistic
9. Existential
75
What is the chronosystem (ecological theory)?
Transitions and shifts overtime
76
What is Bloom's taxonomy?
Different levels of thinking
77
What is Dweck's mindset theory?
Mindset: theory people hold about themselves
Fixed or growth
78
What are 2 other words for pre-linguistic development?
Pre-verbal
Pre-lexical
79
How does newborn feeding change?
Gradually changes from a reflexive to a learnt behaviour along a developmental continuum
Involves a complex interplay between motor + sensory + cognitive + social & emotional development, and mealtimes + feeding environment
80
Describe the communication development of newborns
- eye contact with caregivers
- facial gestures (imitation / spontaneous)
- recognises mothers voice and native language (from 26w in utero)
- can distinguish between human-language sounds
- quietens when picked up
81
Describe the sensory development of newborns
- using all of senses to explore
- hearing developed in womb (startle reflex to loud sounds)
- turns eyes to continuous sound, large + diffuse light source, moving objects
- near sighted, fascinated by human faces at arms length
82
Describe the motor development of newborns
- motor skills developed in utero (newborn reflexes) promotes formation of mother-infant dyad
83
What is an example of a newborn reflex?
Moro reflex
- head is dropped
- abduction of arms, hands open
84
Describe the play development of newborns
- likes high contrast patterns + shapes
- likes moving things
85
Describe the cognitive development of newborns
- perceptual skills developed in utero
86
Describe the social and emotional development of newborns
- relaxed + settled + happy as recognises caregiver
- enjoys skin-to-skin (stroking rubbing etc)
87
When are preterm babies born?
37 weeks or earlier (usually 40)
88
What are the challenges with preterm newborns?
Increases vulnerability to health threatening conditions
May need special care + attention
- SLT role in establishing feeding
89
Where are the countries worst-affected by preterm birth?
65% of all preterms in sub-Saharan Africa
Highest in Bangladesh
Also high in high-income countries (Greece, USA)
90
Describe the communication development of babies 4-6 weeks
- proto-conversations with adults (looking, listening, vocalising)
- start to coo + gurgle
- social responsiveness (smiling, gazing at faces)
- eye contact during interactions
91
Describe the sensory development of babies 4-6 weeks
- follows moving objects with eyes, eg: wind in trees
- enjoys sound of bells/music/voices
92
Describe the motor development of babies 4-6 weeks
- primitive reflexes still present (eg: grasp reflex, opens hand to grasp finger)
- enjoys kicking and waving arms
93
Describe the social + emotional development of babies 4-6 weeks
- signs of a temperament (excited, relaxed etc)
- easily overstimulated (lacks self-control of emotions)
- sleeps mostly when not fed
94
Describe the communication development of babies 3 months
- cooing + gurgling + chuckling
- reciprocal interactions, responsive vocalisation (proto-conversations)
- cries loudly to express needs (intentional)
- smiles in response to speech
- loves cuddles + attention
- fixes eyes when feeding
95
Describe the sensory development of babies 3 months
- visual following of face/toys
96
Describe the motor development of babies 3 months
- clasps hands together, can hold toys
- kicking vigorously
- head control in supported sitting
97
Describe the play development of babies 3 months
- more interest in playthings (eg: textures)
98
Describe the cognitive development of babies 3 months
- starting to show c+e (eg: shaking toy makes a noise)
99
Describe the social + emotional development of babies 3 months
- closes eyes / sucks thumb to self-soothe
- enjoyment of routines (eg: bathtime)
- awake for longer periods of time
100
Describe the communication development of babies 6 months
- monosyllabic babbles (eg: ga-ga)
- then double syllables (eg: goo-ga)
- talks to self tunefully
- squeals of delight
101
Describe the sensory development of babies 6 months
- can see further distance
- turns to carer's voice at distance
102
Describe the motor development of babies 6 months
- primitive reflexes diminished, protective reflexes appear
- starting to eat solids: tongue-thrust reflex (pushes food out) gone
- supports own head
- rolls from tummy to back
- can lift head and chest on their arms/hands
- weight-bearing on supported standing
- one hand grasping, passing objects between hands
- raises arms to be picked up
103
Describe the play development of babies 6 months
- enjoys stacking bricks
- explores with hands and mouth
- plays with rolling ball whilst sitting
104
Describe the cognitive development of babies 6 months
- searches for toy out of visual field (object permanence)
105
Describe the social + emotional development of babies 6 months
- stranger anxiety
- separation anxiety
- some understanding of emotional state of carer's voice
106
How is development supported for babies at 6 months?
- provide rattles + toys around baby and just out of reach
- toys that are safe to orally explore
- build towers and knock down
- picture books
- pointing + naming objects
- explore animal noises
107
Describe the communication development of babies 9 months
- imitating adults' talk + gestures
- babbles tunefully + communicatively
108
Describe the sensory development of babies 9 months
- pleasure in songs + rhymes
109
Describe the motor development of babies 9 months
- crawling, shuffling
- bounce to music
- sitting, leaning forward + pulling objects towards them
- can pull to stand from sitting
- pincer grasp for smaller objects
110
Describe the play development of babies 9 months
- social games (eg: peek-a-boo)
- can play on their own (due to causal knowledge)
- banging noisy toys
- enjoys pointing
111
Describe the cognitive development of babies 9 months
- causal understanding + means-end relations
- searches for hidden object (object permanence)
112
Describe the social + emotional development of babies 9 months
- may have comfort object
- prefers to be near adult (stranger wariness)
113
How is development supported for babies at 9 months?
Build on their loves...
- peekaboo / hide-and-seek
- picking up tiny objects
- bath toys
- picture books
- mess
- rollin
- stacking and nesting
- serve and return
- nursery rhymes
114
What are the 2 communicative gestures used by infants around 1 year?
Protodeclarative (for others to notice, joint attention)
Protoimperative (others to do something)
- often combined with vocalisations
115
What are 2 motor developmental milestones for infants around 1 year?
Mature finger grasp
Walks around furniture, independent walking occurs
116
What is the care-seeking aspect of Bowlby's attachment theory?
Child making every attempt to be physically + emotionally close to attachment figure
Level of closeness required depends on: age, temperament, developmental history, emotional state
117
What is the care-giving aspect of Bowlby's attachment theory?
Secure, stable attachment enabled by responsive care, and emotionally attuned interactions (facial expressions, posture, tone, movement)
118
What are the 4 stages of attachment in attachment theory, and the approximate ages at which they occur?
Pre-attachment (0-2m)
Attachment in the making (2-7m)
Attachment (7m)
Goal-directed partnership (2.5-3y)
119
What happens in the pre-attachment stage?
Infant highly responsive to human contact, and orients to humans without discrimination
120
What happens in the attachment in the making stage?
Growing familiarity with faces + voices + smell + touch of important people- orients to them, more likely to smile + be comforted by them
121
What happens in the attachment stage?
Infant seeks to be close to primary and secondary caregivers, protests at seperation, wary of unfamiliar
122
What happens in the goal-directed partnership stage?
Gradually able to think about + accommodate carers' position - develops reciprocal relationship
123
What did Ainsworth say that being responsive and available provides a child with?
A secure base from which to go out and explore the world
124
What are the 4 attachment patterns
Secure
Insecure-avoidant (auto-regulating)
Insecure-ambivalent (interactively-regulating)
Disorganised (mix of need to be close and distant)
- BUT don't fit into boxes (socialcultural context of theory is post-war Britain)
125
What are 4 examples of factors that can disrupt early attachment?
Consistency of care
Abuse/neglect
Trauma
Natural disasters / refugee experience
126
What is trauma-informed practice?
Places emphasis on centrality of safe, secure relationships as a medium for healing
127
What are treasure baskets, devised by Elinor Goldschmied?
For babies who can sit but not walk (8-12m)
Everyday objects with a variety of texture
Can explore independently or socially
128
What does it mean for someone to be bi/multilingual?
Ability to speak/understand >1 language
129
What is EAL?
English as an additional language
130
What is BFLA?
Bilingual first language acquisition
Hear 2 languages spoken from birth, no chronological difference
131
What is MFLA?
Monolingual first language acquisition
Hear just one language from birth
132
What is ESLA
Early second language acquisition
Language environment changes and children start to hear a second language regularly over and above first language
133
What is a balanced bilingual?
Comparable proficiency in 2 languages
134
What is a dominant bilingual?
Uses 1 language significantly more, and with greater proficiency, than the other
135
What is a dominant / majority language?
Main language of a country/region, spoken by dominant social group
136
What is a minority language?
Language spoken by a social/ethnic minority group
137
What is a functional bilingual?
Operates in 2 languages with/without being fully fluent
138
What is a simultaneous bilingual?
Learning 2 languages from brith
139
What is a successive bilingual?
Second language introduced before the age of 3
140
What is a sequential bilingual?
Second language introduced after first language is well established (after 3)
Often happens at school
141
What is a heritage language?
Language of one's ancestors / ethnolinguistic group
142
What is a home language?
Language spoken in the home, can be >1
143
What is L1?
First, native language/s learnt from birth
144
What is L2?
Second, non-native language of wider communication
145
What is the mother tongue?
Language...
- learnt first
- identifies with as a native speaker
- knows best
- uses most
146
Is multilingualism rare?
No- more bi/multilingual in the world than monolingual
147
Which language are most children educated in?
Second/later-acquired language
148
Do more people speak English as a native or second language?
Second language
149
How is multilingualism changing?
Increasing due to worldwide increase in migration + refugees (particularly in Europe + Asia)
150
How is multilingualism changing in the UK?
Growing number of children enter primary schools with EAL (21.2%), mostly concentrated in London
Over 300 different languages spoken
151
How many languages are spoken in Pakistan
6 major, over 57 minor languages
152
How many languages are spoken in Singapore?
Over 20
English, Malay, Mandarin, Tamil are official languages
153
Are bilinguals equally proficient in both languages?
No
Bilinguals know their languages to the level they use/need them
Most have a dominant language- but can change with age and circumstances
Some can't read/write in one language, some only have passive knowledge of a language
154
Should parents attempt to speak majority language instead of home language?
No...
- may not feel natural
- parents may not be proficient enough
- no evidence that second language in home is essential for second language development
- without home language, child can become isolates from family
- strong foundation in home language can help learn second language
155
What are 3 examples of methods for raising kids bilingual?
One-parent-one-language
Minority language at home
Time and place
- strict rules can be challenging for parents
- no evidence children confused when parents switch languages
156
Does bilingualism cause language delay?
No- children learning 2 languages simultaneously go through same developmental milestones as monolinguals
May start talking slightly later, but within normal range (8-15m)
157
What are the milestones in bilingual language development?
158
What is the variation within bilingual language development?
May develop at dif rates
Temporary reversal is possible (ie: visits other country)
Vocab in each language may be smaller than monolingual, but total vocab at least same size
159
Describe bilingual speech language learning
Can detect and learn regularities for both languages
Recognise both as native, but can discriminate between them via surface acoustic cues (eg: intonnation)
160
Using English and Turkish, explain how phonological systems differ
Turkish doesn't have consonant clusters at the beginning of sentences
eg: can say felower instead of flower
161
How are bilingual infants able to differentiate their languages early on?
Babbling adjusted to language of the speaker
Switch languages according to conversation partner
162
What have multilingual children been found to be less accurate in?
Realisations of vowels
- vowel distortions
- low PVC (% vowels correct) score
More phonological variations or infrequent variants
- keep in mind as SLT (ie: may not be a SSD)
163
What is a normal bilingual acquisition phenomena?
Children show interference/transfer between languages
- transfer can be in one/all languages
- transfer direction dependent on exposure + similarity
164
What may initially happen to children going through sequential bilingual acquisition?
Use home language
Go through 'silent' phase when first exposed to second language (younger child = silent for longer)
Begins to use short / imitative sentences
165
What will eventually happen to children going through sequential bilingual acquisition?
Begin to produce own sentences
Become more fluent
- continues to make grammatical mistakes as missing rules
166
What is subtractive bilingualism?
As children learn additional language, lose skills + fluency in first if not reinforced/maintained
167
What is additive bilingualism?
Children learn additional language whilst first language/culture maintained + reinforced
168
What is social language?
Context-embedded
Everyday language between conversational partners
169
What is academic language?
Context-reduced
Language of academics required for qualifications eg: GCSEs
170
What is the different timeline for learning social + academic language for a sequential bilingual?
Up to 2y to develop Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills (BICS)
5-7y to acquire full range of aCognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP)
BICS-CALP gap results in difficulties with literacy → false assumptions re: language-learning disabilities
171
What is code mixing / code switching?
Using both languages within the same sentence
- expected in children
- adults do when they talk to other bilinguals
172
How is code switching seen as a sign of bilingual proficiency?
Adjust amount of code switching to match conversational partner
Know a word in one language but not other
Emphasises, expresses emotion
173
When are bilingual children able to respond as expected in the correct language (dep on: person, context)
3
174
In what ways can language mixing for bilinguals occur
Lexicon (EIN big cow)
Morphology (PFEITing)
Syntax (a house pink)
175
If bilingual children have speech/language disorders, will it show in both languages?
Yes, but may look different in each language
176
How to decide if a bilingual children should see an SLT?
177
Why do multilingual children face considerable challenges in receiving adequate assessment + intervention for SL disorders
Mismatch between child language and SLT language
Support + resources often only in English
178
How is the number of children entering primary school speaking EAL changing?
Increasing, though level of exposure prior to school entry varies
179
Describe communication at 1 year
- 1-3 words with degree of consistency
- talks to people/toys in long, tuneful stretches
- understands object names
- can respond to verbal requests, with gestures + vocalisations
180
How has independence developed by the time a toddler is 1 year?
Holds limbs out to help dress
Holding cutlery + drinks (though messy)
181
How have cognitive skills of toddlers at 1 year developed?
Initiates coordinated joint attention b/w adult & object
182
Describe communication at 18 months
Range of single words (6-20)
Understands + obeys simple commands/ gestures/ questions
Still babbling (has a tuneful intonation)
Phonological simplification
183
How have cognitive skills of toddlers at 18 months developed?
Focuses on self-directed activities: attention is single channelled
Awareness of self-identity, can now recognise themself in the mirror
184
Describe play at 18 months
Early symbolic play: use of toys to enact familiar situations
Can squat to pick up toy
185
How does the number of communicative acts /min change from 18m to 2y?
18m → 2/min
- requesting object/action
- establishing joint attention
- gestures + vocalisations
2y → 5-7/min
- requesting info
- answering questions
- achknowledging
- words, some non-verbal
186
At what age do toddlers start to join 2 words?
18-20m
At 24-36m...
- 98% 2-word sentences
- 90% 3-word sentences
- 84% 4-word sentences
187
How does the average expressive vocabulary size change between 18m and 24m?
50-100 words at 18m
to
200-300 words at 24m
188
What is the vocabulary spurt?
Rapid increase in words used (imp for joining words together, making connections)
Words beyond nouns
189
When does the vocabulary spurt happen?
Around 18m-2y
Around 6m after first words
190
How do toddlers learn new words fast during the vocabulary spurt?
Syntactic bootstrapping: using syntax around word to figure out word
Fast mapping: hearing word less times before its known
191
What are holophrases
Single word sentences used by toddlers
eg: mine (stop playing with my toy)
192
What is overextension (toddlers)?
Taking a word and applying it beyond its contextual referent
eg: mum for all older woman
193
What is underextension (toddlers)?
Not applying a word as far as it can
eg: mum is only theirs, fish not an animal
194
Describe communication of 2y
- 2-3 word utterances
- understands more complicated sentences
- more symbolic understanding of words
- turn-taking
- asking questions
- saying no/not
- echolalia
- early gramatical development (pronouns)
195
Describe play of 2y old
Can now use >1 action in play
eg: dinosaur fed, then dinosaur to bed
196
How many words can a toddler say at 3?
Around 700 (more booms of language occur)
197
Between 2.5-4.5, how many new words do children acquire /day?
~ 2-4 /day
198
Describe play by 3 years
Imagination
- make-believe play
- imaginary items have properties (eg: toy dinosaur is hungry)
Playing with peers > caregivers: allows for observation + imitation
199
How is play by 3 years linked to other development?
Use of social interactions skills in play to form friendships
Assists in cognitive + social + emotional development
Imagination closely linked to language (recognising + using symbols)
200
Describe motor development by 3 years
Walks up stairs
Cuts with toy scissors
Hold pencil near point, can copy shapes
Riding tricycle/bike
201
Describe a child's conversation by 3 years
Language as main means of communicating
Turn-taking
Starts conversations
Can maintain topics in conversations
202
What are 8 of the functions/uses of language for children between 3-5?
Requesting explanations
Requesting information
Requesting clarification
Suggesting actions
Expressing emotions
Stating rules
Politeness markers
Humour/silliness
203
Describe a child's speech by 3 years?
Largely intelligible
Varies in volume + pitch
Some substitutions/simplified grammar
204
Describe a child's receptive language by 3 years?
Understands common nouns + verbs + adjectives
Understands who/whose/why/how many ?s
Follows instructions containing 3 (maybe 4) key words
Understands lots of concepts (eg: big/small)
Can identify object by function (eg: which do we eat with)
205
Describe a child's expressive language by 3 years?
Tells short (sometimes jumbled) stories
Uses grammatical structures (pronouns, articles, conjunctions, prepositions)
Uses externalised language for assistance in difficult tasks
206
What are some of the early numeracy literacy skills around 3-4 years?
Count up to 5 objects
Recite numbers up to 20
207
What are the different levels of attention called?
Reynell attention levels
208
What are the 6 Reynell attention levels?
Level 1 (0-1) → distractible, attention fleeting
Level 2 (1-2) → rigid attention, attends to activity of choice but cuts self off from all else
Level 3 (2-3) → single-channelled but attends to others
Level 4 (3-4) → flexible attention, single-channelled but more controlled, can shift attention
Level 5 (4-5) → gradual integrated attention
Level 6 (5-6) → fully integrated attention
209
What is a strategy to support a child's attention at Level 1 (0-1)?
Incorporate child's motivators into activity
210
What are strategies to support a child's attention at Level 2 (1-2)?
Give child time for their activity of choice
Call child's name to get their attention
211
What is a strategy to support a child's attention at Level 3 (2-3)?
Call child's name before speaking
212
What are strategies to support a child's attention at Level 4 (3-4)?
Tell child it's time to listen
Visual prompts to gain attention
Tell child they can continue working whilst listening to you
213
What are strategies to support a child's attention at Level 5 (4-5)?
Use introductory phrases/gestures
Give information clearly
Praise good listening
214
What is a strategy to support a child's attention at Level 6 (5-6)?
Encourage active listening + processing
215
How many minutes can a child attend an activity based on their age?
3-5 minutes for each year of life
note: keep this in mind when designing therapy sessions
216
Describe speech development at 4 years
Intelligible
Phonological awareness skills emerge
A few sound substitutions / consonant cluster simplifications
May hesitate/ use fillers
217
Describe language development at 4 years
Grammatically correct
Understands sentences up to 6 pieces of info
Understands abstract concepts eg: before/after
Asks questions
218
Describe communication development at 4 years
Can account recent events
Can gives personal details
Enjoys jokes
Knows several nursery ryhmes
219
What skill emerges at age 4?
Literacy skills
note: linked to spoken language competence!
220
What are 3 communication support strategies for preschoolers?
Linguistic responsivity
Language facilitating behaviours
Language developing behaviours
- expansion
- recasting
221
What is linguistic responsivity (communication support strategy for preschool)?
Child-led, following their interests
222
What are language facilitating behaviours (communication support strategy for preschool)?
Behaviours adults use to create + sustain children's participation in conversations and joint engagement
eg: looking at child expectantly, asking open-ended questions
223
What's the difference between conversational expansion and recasting?
Expansion: adult responds to child with more SEMANTICALLY complex form
eg: 'doggy run' → 'the doggy is running fast'
Recasting: Expansion: adult responds to child with more SYNTACTICALLY complex form
eg: 'go park' → 'let's go to the park'
224
What are the 5 steps to creating a language-rich preschool classroom?
Identify a team
Develop a philosophy (principles)
Design physical space
Design daily language plans (content form use)
Ensure quality adult-child conversations
225
What kinds of jokes develop around age 7?
Ones that involve figurative language
Sarcasm
226
Why are researchers less interested about language in older children?
More focused on literacy (reading + writing + spelling)
227
In terms of pragmatics, by 5y, what are the 6 new language functions that emerge?
Reporting on past events
Reasoning
Predicting
Expressing empathy
Imaginary roles + props
Maintaining interactions
228
In terms of pragmatics, by 6y, what can children do?
Can hint without mentioning the intention in the request
Ability to address specific requests for clarification
Narratives developing, increasing complexity
229
When does the use of conjunctions emerge?
Around 5/6y
230
Describe semantic development from 5y
Vocabulary size continues to increase
Knowledge of taxonomies (classification) 5-7: children use superordinate terms (hypernyms) in speech
Relationships between words more firmly established
231
What is research supporting that primary school aged children have more firmly established relationships between words? What is this 'shift' called?
Word association games...
<7 produce sentence like responses, heard in everyday talk (eg: car → drive)
>7 produce semantically related responses (eg: car → van)
- increased word finding fluency!
This is called the syntagmatic paradigmatic shift
232
At the primary school age, describe development in expressive grammar
Complex sentences → 2+ verb phrases with conjunctions
Noun + verb phrases expand within sentences
Complex verbs eg: ask, promise
233
In terms of receptive grammar, which sentences are easier for young children?
Active > passive
Reversible passives are the hardest as can't use semantics to understand syntactics
234
How do narratives / storytelling change throughout development?
Decentre
235
What are the 5 stages of narrative development and the ages at which they occur? (Stadler & Ward)
Labelling (4)
Listing (4.5)
Connecting (5)
Sequencing (5)
Narrating (5.5)
236
What are some of the language demands in a Year 5 class (age 9-10)?
Verbal reasoning + negotiation
Meta-linguistic analysis of writing
Tempering feedback to others' feelings
Verbally presented info, no visual scaffolding
Subject specific, academic language
237
How are communication supporting classrooms created at primary school age?
Communication supporting environments
Communication supporting opportunities
Communication supporting interactions
238
What are 2 other names for dialogic reading?
Interactive storytelling
Shared storytelling
239
What does dialogic reading do?
Allows children to actively participate in reading + practising language
- adult feeds back on child's correct language use
- adult adapts reading style to child's developing linguistic ability
240
How do you do dialogic reading using PEER method?
Prompt
Evaluate
Expand
Retreat
241
How do you do dialogic reading using CROWD method?
Completion
Recall
Open-ended questions
Wh- questions
Distancing
242
What theories does dialogic reading align with?
Social interactionist theories of child language acquisition
Child actively drives forward language learning from their interests, in scaffolded/socially supported interactions
243
What can be used alongside dialogic reading?
Story sacks: toys around a story
244
What is speech in relation to linguistic levels?
Speech is an element that makes up language
Speech and language impact on each other, and are very intertwined
245
What are the 3 linguistic (language) levels?
Sound structure (phonetic + phonology)
Word/sentence structure (morphology + syntax)
Meaning (semantics + pragmatics)
246
What is phonetics?
Study of speech sounds: physical production + acoustic transmission + perception of sounds
247
What is articulation?
Part of phonetics concerned with the movement of speech mechanisms to produce sounds
248
What are the 3 traditional theories of speech acqusition?
Behaviourist
Structuralist
Biological
249
What is the behaviourist theory of speech acquisition?
Behaviour shaped through models + reinforcement
From a speech perspective: children learn they get what they want with correct pronunciation
250
What is the structuralist theory of speech acquisition?
No external influences, we have an innate pre-determined mechanism to develop speech
251
What is the biological theory of speech acquisition?
Born with innate pre-determined mechanism to develop speech
BUT: physical/biological factors can impact on this (eg: deaf/cleft/genetic conditions)
252
What do linguistic theories of speech acquisition look at? What are the 2 linguistic theories
Looks at speech as an element of language, how they impact on each other
Generative phonology
Natural phonology
253
What is generative phonology?
Phonological rules need to be fully understood + acquired by child to influence output/use
254
What is natural phonology?
We can map speech development to say
- what sounds develop when
- natural speech sound errors vs when a child may have a disorder
255
What does the psycholinguistic model look at?
Processes involved in perception, storage, and production of speech
256
What is the input signal in the psycholinguistic model?
Speech signal heard by the child, usually from adult
257
What is the output signal in the psycholinguistic model?
Utterance produced by the child
258
What is the focus of the psycholinguistic model?
Lexical representations- unseen psychological events that occur between the arrival of an input signal and the production of speech to comprise information about a word
259
What are the 5 lexical representations in the psycholinguistic model?
Semantic representation
Phonological representation
Motor programme
Gramatical representation
Orthographic representation
260
What is semantic representation (psycholinguistic model)?
Info about what the word means, attributes of the word, what category its in
261
What is phonological representation (psycholinguistic model)?
Info about how the word sounds, allows discrimination of the target word from other similar words
262
What is motor programme (psycholinguistic model)?
Stored set of instructions for how to pronounciate the word
263
What is grammatical representation (psycholinguistic model)?
Info about...
- word class
- how it can be used in a sentence
- plural forms
264
What is orthographic representation (psycholinguistic model)?
Info about what word looks like written
265
What is the box and arrow model by Stackhouse & Wells for speech processing?
266
How are newborns 'linguistic citizens of the world' and how does this change?
Can discriminate almost all phonemes in world's languages
After first year, they lose this ability as to analyse sounds commonly heard, they have to 'let go' others
267
At what age is an embryo's inner ear fully developed?
20 weeks
Baby has been hearing for approx 5m by the time they're born
268
What sounds do newborns recognise and prefer?
Mother > other females
Native language > other language
Story heard in womb > other stories
269
What is baby babble?
Important developmental milestone children need to pass to achieve clear speech development
Sounds before first feel words as babies' experiment with tongues/lips/palate
Broader range of speech sounds enter baby babble as their mouth cavity grows relative to the size of their tongues
270
What type of babble do babies use between 0-6m?
Vegetative babble, little meaning
271
What type of babble do babies use between 6-12m?
Canonical babble (reduplicated)
- parents can assign meaning to babble
272
What are 6 internal factors that may affect speech?
Anatomy + physiology
Social interest + knowledge
Hearing + vision senses
Neurological + cognitive ability
Language processing skills
Motivation + intent
273
What are 6 external factors that may affect speech?
Secure, affectionate relationships
Models
Interaction opportunities
Language at their level
Routines
Play
274
What are the 3 positions phonemes could be in a word?
Initial
Medial
Final
275
What are the 'early' phonemes? (McLeod & Crowe)
2;0-3;11
276
What are the 'middle' phonemes? (McLeod & Crowe)
4;0-4;11
277
What are the 'late' phonemes? (McLeod & Crowe)
5;0-6;11
278
Between 3;0-3;11, how many UK vowels should be acquired?
96.39%
279
By what age should children be inteligible?
3 for familiar people
5 for strangers
280
What are the 2 types of typical speech processes?
Structural: impacts structure of the word
Systemic: one sound changes to another (substitution)
281
What is reduplication? At what age should this typical speech process be resolved?
Structural
One syllable repeated for another
3;0
282
What is consonant harmony? At what age should this typical speech process be resolved?
Systemic
Sound replaced by a sound that is same/similar to another in the word (eg: dod for dog)
3;0
283
What is final consonant deletion? What is this common with? At what age should this typical speech process be resolved?
Structural
Final consonant omitted
Common with hearing loss/glue ear as final consonant is usually quietest
3;3
284
What is fronting? At what age should this typical speech process be resolved?
Systemic
Target sound is produced further forward in mouth
3;6-3;9
285
What is stopping? At what age should this typical speech process be resolved?
Systemic
Fricative/affricate changes to plosive
3;0 for initial
5;0 for final
286
What is weak syllable deletion (WSD)? At what age should this typical speech process be resolved?
Structural
Omission of unstressed syllable (eg: mato for tomato)
4;0
287
What is cluster reduction? At what age should this typical speech process be resolved?
Structural
Omission of cluster element (eg: poon for spoon)
4;0
288
What is gliding? At what age should this typical speech process be resolved?
Systemic
Liquid consonants replaced by glides
5;0
289
Are our brains evolved for reading?
No- have to explicitly learn as reading is only a recent cultural development
290
What is the broad definition of literacy?
Ability to identify + understand + interpret + create + communicate using printed and written materials
291
What do SLTs focus on regarding literacy?
How children engage with ‘text’ information
292
What are the different types of literacy?
Traditional
Multimodal
293
What is using text abbreviations/emojis a sign of?
Superior language skills as requires good executive function
- as long as can shift to formal language when needed!
294
What effect does literacy have on our language system?
Taxes it because…
- books may be in dif culture/time
- increased sentence complexity
295
How is vocab developed via literacy?
Learn to read, then read to learn
296
What literacy skill is verbal comprehension associated with?
Reading comprehension
297
What literacy skill is expressive language associated with?
Expressive writing
Spelling
298
What literacy skill is speech associated with?
Phonological awareness
299
What literacy skills are motor skills associated with?
Handwriting / typing
300
What is early success in spoken language a foundation for?
Later reading development
301
What can written symbols represent?
Sound
- phonetic approach to learning to read, teaching letter-sound associations
Meaning
- logographic / ideographic
- eg: symbol for a book
302
What is an example of a country with 3 written languages?
Japan
- sound
- meaning
- international symbols
303
Why is English less phonetic now?
Old language: spoken language is dynamic and has diverged (subconscious process)
Written language less dynamic
304
Why is reading important (bigger picture)?
Gateway to employment
305
What is an early stage of literacy development?
Knowledge on the spatial orientation of books
- covers and backs
- left -> right
- right-side-up
306
What happens at later stages of literacy development?
Learn concepts of print
- sentences read left -> right (may follow with finger)
- words have boundaries
- spoken counterpart to orthographic symbols
- words tell stories
307
What is the basis of decoding? (Wren et al)
308
Why is English orthographically deep?
Same symbol dif sounds
- eg: 'ou' in rough and through
Dif symbols same sound
- eg: 'ee' 'ea'
309
Why is English a challenging language in terms of literacy?
Some of the most common words are irregular, kids just have to learn
eg: 'the' 'is' 'wh-'
310
What are concepts of print the basis for?
Basis for knowledge of letter + alphabetic principle
311
What is phonological awareness (literacy)?
Ability to reflect on and manipulate the structure of an utterance as distinct from its meaning
- size of linguistic unit
- level of explicitness of operations
312
What are the different sizes of linguistic units
313
What are the levels of explicitness of operations
1. Identification → recognise linguistic units
2. Segmentation → recognise + break up units
3. Blending → recognise + put together units
4. Manipulation recognise + break up + add/delete/exchange units
314
What is letter knowledge?
Knowing letters that represent phonemes in alphabetic writing systems
315
What characteristics for each letter do children learn when acquiring letter knowledge?
Graphic form in upper + lower case
Letter name
Letter sound
316
What is alphabetic principle?
To read words effectively, a child needs to understand letters represent phonemes
- not automatic, relationship is taught
317
Who developed the model on literacy development: becoming a skilled reading/writer? What are the 4 stages of progression?
Ehri
Pre-alphabetic
Partial alphabetic
Full alphabetic
Consolidated alphabetic
318
What are the central aspects of Ehri's model on becoming a skilled reading/writer?
Child develops knowledge of writing system
Child develops knowledge of relations b/w oral + written language
319
What is the pre-alphabetic phase?
Little-no knowledge of letters
Know symbols have meaning
Some reading ability for signs
Cannot read knew words
320
What is the partial alphabetic phase?
Some letter-sound knowledge to read words eg: initial/ final letters
Differentiation of vowel sounds particularly hard as phonologically indistinct
321
What is the full alphabetic phase?
Acquisition of full knowledge of alphabet + letter-sound correspondences
Words sounded out
Common words stored in memory, read w/o sounding out letters
Use of decoding + prediction strategies
322
What is the consolidated alphabetic phase?
Increased knowledge of orthography
Frequent exposure + memory of common spelling patterns
Letter strings become consolidated units
Use of decoding + prediction + analogy + sight strategies
323
What is involved in the complex activity of reading a passage?
Decode + comprehend words
Move eyes across lines, fixating on individual words
Combine words into meaningful clauses/sentences
Integrate ideas presented in successive sentences
Make sense of text as a whole
324
What 2 largely independent skills is reading comprehension a product of?
Written word decoding
Oral language/linguistic comprehension
325
What is the continuum of reading ability?
326
How many words do adolescents know (approx) at...
10
15
25
10: 20,000
15: 30,000
25: 50,000
327
The journey from childhood to adulthood through adolescence is marked by a combination of which categories of transitions...
Biological
Psychological
Social
328
What are 4 key changes that occur during adolescence?
Puberty
Neuro-maturation
Thinking/cognitive development
Identity
329
What is puberty?
Hormonal changes resulting in the development of primary + secondary sex characteristics
330
What does puberty co-occur with?
Parental changes eg: menopause, can result in conflict
331
What is neuro-maturation?
New synapses + neural connections are made, then pruned
Size of cerebellum increased, linked to descision making
White matter volume increased
Limbic system develops
332
What elements of thinking and cognition changes in adolescence according to developmental psychology?
Selective attention
Memory
Processing speed
Executive function
Hypothetical-deductive reasoning / critical thinking
Metacognition
Social metacognition / interpretive diversity
333
What is identity?
Constructing self and world views: figuring out who you are
334
What are 3 things one's identity may be based off?
Personal
Social/ risk behaviours
Academics
335
How does identity develop?
Experiment with identities
Shed
Settle
336
What do adolescents use and manipulate language for? Give 4 examples
To create unique social meanings
- non standard 'were'
- tag questions 'isn't it?'
- right dislocation 'it was new, that skirt'
- negative concord 'i didn't say nothing'
337
What can language and social meaning contribute to creating?
Social identities
Group membership: dif social groups use linguistic features to create separate styles
338
How is language prevalent in the secondary school classroom?
In curriculum
How you access the curriculum
Increased:
- figurative language
- abstract concepts
- complex teacher talk (multiple meanings, idioms)
339
What are the 5 areas of language development in secondary school?
Understanding + reasoning
Vocabulary + word finding
Refined grammar + syntax
Sentence structure + narration
Social interaction
340
What is derivational morphology that develops during adolescence?
Understanding + using suffix '-ly' to switch between adverb and adjective
341
What verb production develops during adolescence?
Metacognitive verb production
- eg: 'believe' instead of 'know'
342
How do adolescents define words as they develop?
Increasing mention subordinate category classification
More subtle aspects of meaning
343
How do figurative expressions develop in adolescence?
Understand + explain + reflect on increasingly abstract eg: metaphors + idioms
344
How does ambiguity + sarcasm develop in adolescence?
Increased understanding even without contextual cues/intonation
345
How does the length of each clause change from 10 /15/ 25?
10= 7+
15= 8+
25= 9+
- 2x longer during expository discourse (conveying information)
346
What are linguistic challenges transitioning to secondary school?
Word meaning is harder across all aspects of the curriculum
- technical + specialist terms
347
How do adolescents engage listeners during convos / narratives / expository discourse?
Humour
Drama
Elaborate stories
Collaboration with peers for joint narratives
