Sport Psychology Flashcards
(160 cards)
1
Q
what are the three personality theories?
A
–trait theory
–social learning theory
–interactionist theory
2
Q
define personality.
A
–the sum total of an individuals characteristics which. makes them unique
–stable, enduring + unique to each individual
3
Q
what is a trait?
A
–a characteristic of personality which is inherited at birth
–stable, enduring + consistent in all situations
4
Q
trait theory
A
–personality is innate/inherited
–behaviour = function of personality / B = F (p)
5
Q
what are the four personality types + who identified these?
A
–Eysenck
–introvert= tend to be shy + reserved, preferring isolation
–extrovert= affiliate well with others, outgoing + sociable
–stable= display predictable emotions in appropriate situations + don’t experience intense stress
–neurotic= display extreme + unpredictable emotions in the form of mood swings + high degrees of stress
6
Q
what are the drawbacks to the trait theory?
A
–see traits as more fixed + long lasting than they really are
–haven’t been useful in consistently predicting behaviour - unreliable
–fail to take into account the effect of a situation on an individuals behaviour/attitudes
–ignores that fact that people adapt to specific environmental situations
–influence of environment + other people on shaping personality is ignored
7
Q
social learning theory
A
–all behaviour/personality is learned
–learning occurs via environmental experiences + through the influence of other people (significant others)
– behaviour = Function of Environment / B = F (e)
–behaviour is learned when its reinforced
8
Q
interactionist theory
A
– combines the trait and state theory
–personality is modified and behaviour is formed when genetically inherited traits are triggered by environmental circumstances
– behaviour = Function of Personality X Environment / B = F (PxE)
9
Q
what is Hollanders Concentric Ring Theory?
A
–he proposed that personality has three levels
–role-related behaviour= surface of personality
–typical response= usual response in most situations
–psychological core= the ‘real’ you
10
Q
psychological core
A
–the ‘real’ you
–beliefs and values that remain fairly permanent
11
Q
typical response
A
–usual response in most situations
–usually indicates your psychological core
12
Q
role-related behaviour
A
–surface of personality
–in certain situations we may behave differently
13
Q
How can knowledge of the interactionist perspective improve performance?
A
–coach could predict any potential unacceptable or aggressive behaviour before it happens + remove the played from the situation
–coach could identify situations that cause inappropriate actions or a dropping of performance + create similar situations in training so the played can learn to cope
–coach could use it to change the players behaviour by encouraging them to adapt to specific circumstances
14
Q
what is an attitude?
A
–a mode of behaviour that is thought to be a typical response of an individual
–linked to personality
–can be positive or negative
–directed towards an object, person, place, thing or event
15
Q
how are attitudes formed?
A
–from experiences
–socialisation= when someone associates with others + picks up their opinions and values
–we learn from friends, parents, role models
–through repeated or reinforced behaviour
–could stem from culture, social class, stereotyping
16
Q
explain the Triadic Model of Attitudes.
A
–cognitive component= what you think
–affective component= your feelings or emotions
–behavioural component= what you do- actions of the performer
17
Q
What is the Cognitive Dissonance Theory?
A
–if a person holds 2 opposing ideas, emotional conflict or dissonance arises
–if someone has a negative attitude towards exercise, a coach can apply pressure by changing one of the attitude components to create an uneasy feeling
18
Q
What is the Persuasive Communication Theory?
A
–the use of persuasion to change an individuals attitude
–must consider:
>persuader= needs to be perceived as significant + of high status
>message= needs to be presented in a way that makes the recipient want to change an attitude
>recipient= they must really wish to change their attitude
>situation= timing persuasion + having support for encouragement
19
Q
what are the strategies to improve an attitude?
A
–rewards successful elements of performance
–use positive role models
–give positive reinforcement for correct behaviour
–give negative reinforcement for unacceptable behaviour
–ensure training is enjoyable to maintain motivation
20
Q
Define arousal
A
the state of general preparedness of the body for action, involving physiological and psychological factors
21
Q
What are the physiological signs of arousal?
A
–increased HR
–increased breathing rate
–nausea
–increase muscle tension
–sweating
–need to urinate
–dry mouth
–increased blood pressure
–increased adrenaline
–dazed look in eyes
22
Q
What are the psychological signs of arousal?
A
–increased focus
–increased concentration
–heightened awareness of. cues
–narrowing of attention
–decreased reaction time
–anxiety
–tension
–negative self-talk
–difficulties sleeping
–fear + anger
23
Q
Drive Theory of Arousal
A
–as arousal increased so does performance
– Performance = a function of Drive X Habit / P = f (D x H)
–expert is more likely to see improved performance as arousal increases, but a novice is likely to make more errors
24
Q
Improved performance due to increased drive is dependent on…?
A
–the stage of learning/ experiences of a player
25
Explain the Inverted U Theory.
-- as arousal increases, so does performance but only up to an optimal point
--any further increase can cause performance to deteriorate
26
what is the optimal level of arousal dependent on in the Inverted U Theory?
-- experience
--personality
--task
27
Explain the Zone of Optimal Functioning (Hanin)
--people respond differently to arousal
--each athlete has their own preferred level of arousal
--an athlete is either 'in the zone' or not
28
what are the features of being 'in the zone' ?
--performer is confident and calm
-- they feel in control of their actions
--they are fully focussed
--performance is smooth and effortless
--peak flow experience occurs
29
what are the four types of anxiety?
--trait
--state
--cognitive
--somatic
30
what is anxiety?
--a state of nervousness or worry
31
trait anxiety
--a personality trait
--when a player feels nervous in most sporting situations
--genetic
--stable
32
state anxiety
--a response to a particular sporting situation
--a temporary rush of anxiety
--caused by a threatening circumstance
e.g: penalty
33
cognitive anxiety
--psychological
--irrational thinking or worries about performance
--don't believe in ability to perform + can lead to loss of concentration
=negative impact on performance
34
somatic anxiety
--physiological= response of the body
e.g: increased HR, sweating, muscular tension
--increase in somatic anxiety can improve performance up to a certain point, then it decreases after that
35
what are the methods to measure anxiety?
--self-report questionnaires
--observations
--physiological testing
36
what are the benefits of self-report questionnaires?
--quick
--easy
--cheap
--efficient- large groups can be assessed quickly
37
what are the drawbacks of self-report questionnaires?
--players might not answer truthfully
--dependent on the mood of individual
--time pressure could cause some answers to be rushed = incorrect responses
38
what are the benefits of observations?
--true to life = valid
39
what are the drawbacks of observations?
--subjective
--time consuming
--performers can change behaviour if they know they're being watched
40
what are the benefits of physiological measures?
--results are factual and true to life = valid
--can be measured in training + competition
--advances in tech can measure the HR which relays back to the coach immediately
41
what are the drawbacks of physiological measures?
--training is required to use the devices
--cost may deter amateur performers
--wearing a device can restrict movement
--if performer knows they are being measured, they may experience more stress = false readings
42
validity
--whether the data collected actually measures what it sets out to measure
43
reliability
--the degree to which data collection is consistent + stable over time
44
aggression
--forceful behaviour in sport
--intent to harm
--outside of the rules
--reactive
--out of control
--deliberate + hostile
45
assertion
--channelled aggression
--controlled
--well-motivated
--generally within the rules of the game
--goal-directed
--not intended to harm others
e.g: to drive forcefully through a group of players to score in basketball
46
what is the instinct theory of aggression?
--a trait perspective
--claims that all performers are born with an aggressive instinct that will surface if provoked
e.g: a player may react to a bad foul by retaliating aggressively
47
what are the evaluations against the instinct aggression theory?
--not all aggression is reactive + spontaneous
--some aggression is learned or pre-intended
48
what is the social learning theory of aggression?
--a learned response
--can be copied from others, particularly if behaviour is reinforced
--learned from significant others
e.g: you see an experienced player foul an opponent off the ball without the ref noticing, this distracts the player and they don't score. You then copy this in a later game
49
what is an evaluation against the social learning theory of aggression?
--aggression can be instinctive + reactive rather than being learned
50
frustration-aggression hypothesis
--aggression occurs when goals are blocked + the performer becomes frustrated ---> aggression
--the aggressive act will then reduce the aggressive drive = catharsis
--but if player is unable to release the aggressive drive, then self-punishment will occur = more frustration + increased aggressive drive
51
catharsis
--letting off steam
--sport is used as a release for channelling aggression
--experienced once the frustrated player has had a chance to release their aggression
52
what is an evaluation of the frustration-aggression hypothesis?
--not all frustration leads to aggression + not all aggression is the result of frustration
53
what are the reasons for resulting to aggression?
--losing
--poor play by you
--poor play by a team mate
--disagreement with the ref
--a hostile crowd
--pressure to succeed
--a high pressure game
--being fouled
54
aggressive-cue hypothesis
--increased frustration will lead to an increased arousal level + a drive towards aggressive responses
--aggressive responses will only occur if learned 'cues' are present to act as a stimulus
examples of cues: away pitch at your rivals, an opponent you have previously clashed with
55
how can a coach prevent aggression?
--substitute an aggressive behaviour
--reinforce non-aggressive behaviour
--point out non-aggressive role models
--set out non-aggressive goals
--don't reinforce aggressive acts in training
--talk to players to calm them down
56
how can a player prevent aggression?
--walk away from the situation
--use mental rehearsal or relaxation to lower arousal
--channel aggression into assertion
57
how can officials prevent aggression?
--punish aggression with fines
--talk to players to calm them down
--apply the rules fairly + consistently
--apply sanctions immediately
58
achievement motivation
--the tendency to approach or avoid competitive situations
--looks at how much desire a player has
= desire to succeed- fear of failure
59
what is the level of achievement motivation dependent on?
--personality
--situation
60
NAF
= need to avoid failure
--more drawn to easy tasks that can be completed successfully completed
--seek secure + safe options rather than risky ones
--demonstrate avoidance behaviour
--lack confidence
--will avoid 50/50 challenges
--give up easily - won't give it a 2nd try
--don't like feedback or evaluation - impacts their self-esteem
61
NACH
= need to achieve
--will try hard in most situations to be successful
--more drawn to more difficult tasks as they will gain a lot of satisfaction if successful
--approach situations with enthusiasm
--take risks
--seek pride + satisfaction
--welcome feedback + evaluation
--confident
--task persistent
--attribute success internally
62
what are strategies for developing NACH performers?
--attribute success internally= tell the player they are the cause of the success
--improving confidence
--reinforcement= offer praise + rewards to those who achieve
--goal setting= achievable + new challenges should be set
--allowing success= set tasks that can be accomplished in early development
63
achievement goal theory
--motivation + task persistence depend on the type of goals set by the performer + how they measure success
--if an outcome goal is set + they succeed, then pride + satisfaction are maintained
--if they fail, then confidence will decrease
--if outcome goals are set too hard they could be discouraged
64
what are the 4 types of others that can be present when playing sport, according to Zajonc?
--audience = the people who are watching (spectators or Tv audience)
--co-actors = those who are doing the same thing at the same time but might not be in competition
--competition = those who are in direct competition
--social reinforcers = people who have a direct influence on the performance + their presence is a part of the event (coach)
65
what 'others' are passive in Zajonc's theory?
--audience
--co-actors
66
how do passive others present at a competition affect performers?
--they increase the arousal of the performer
--could increase/decrease level of performance
67
if others are present, what does the impact on performance depend on?
--type of task
--level of experience
--stage of learning
68
how is a beginner likely to respond to others being present when they are performing?
--increased anxiety + over-arousal
--causing poor execution of skills
= social inhibition
69
how is an expert likely to respond to others being present when they are performing?
--increased motivation + encouraged by support
--can cope with the demands of the crowd
--responses will be correct even under pressure (due to skills being well-learnt, habitual + automatic)
--performance is more likely to be enhanced
= social facilitation
70
what is the effect of others being present on complex skills?
--negative effect
--these skills require a lot of thought, information processing + decision making
= increased arousal = decreased level of performance
71
evaluation apprehension
--perceived fear of being watched
--the perception of players when someone significant is watching is that they are being judged
--can be positive or negative depending on the perfomer
72
how can social inhibition be prevented?
--getting the players familiar with playing in front of a crowd
--gradually introducing evaluation/feedback
--improving focus + concentration by selective attention
73
what are the features of a group dynamic?
--a collective identity = easily recognised, pride + feel affiliation with one another
--interaction= the way players work together to complete a task, members should have defined roles
--communication= verbal + non-verbal
--a shared goal or purpose= achieving success keeps players working for each other
74
What are the 4 parts to Tuckman's theory of group formation?
1--forming = where the group gets to know each other
2--storming = potential conflict as individuals compete to establish their position, status or role
3--norming = once any conflict has been resolved, the team settles down + begins to cooperate, developing cohesion
4-- performing = all players are now interactive + working together to achieve their goals, members support each other + understand their roles in a team
75
what does the length of time group formation takes depend on?
--size of the group
--difficult of the task
--experience of the players
76
cohesion
--involves every team member is working hard at the same time = co-action
--each player may have different roles + this must be integrated with the roles of other members = interaction
77
what are the two types of cohesion?
--task
--social
78
task cohesion
--looks at the end of the team pulling together, fulfilling their individual role to achieve the goal as a group
--can over-ride the problems of social cohesion
79
social cohesion
--the interaction between team members + how they work with each other
--may socialise away from sport
80
what may be a negative effect of social cohesion?
--may create sub-groups + therefore friction
81
what may be positive effects of social cohesion?
--helps interaction
--improved communication
--improved team spirit
82
what are the 3 concepts involved in Steiner's model of group performance?
--actual productivity
--potential productivity
--faulty processes
83
actual productivity
--the team performance during a game or event + refers to the extent of successful interaction
84
potential productivity
--the maximum capability of the group when cohesiveness is strongest
85
faulty processes
--factors that can go wrong in team performance
86
what is the equation linking actual productivity, potential productivity + faulty processes?
actual productivity = potential productivity - losses due to faulty processes
87
what are the 2 types of faulty processes?
--coordination losses = the Ringelmann effect
--motivational losses = social loafing
88
co-ordination losses/ the Ringelmann effect
--any breakdown in teamwork + synchronisation of the group
89
motivational losses/ social loafing
--relate to an individual who suffers a decrease in motivation during performance + so withdraws effort + 'coasts'
90
what are the causes of social loafing?
--feeling that others aren't trying
--low self-confidence
--feeling that performances are never watched or valued
--negative experiences
--loss of motivation if task is perceived too difficult
91
what are the causes of the Ringelmann effect?
--injuries
--lack of incentive
--vague individual roles
--low sum of players overall ability
--personality- low trait confidence
--inadequate leadership
92
what are the ways of improving productivity?
--structured practice to ensure all players know tactics + strategies
--give individuals special roles/responsibilities
--effective leader
--team bonding exercises
--avoid social cliques
--develop confidence
--develop support within the team
--maintain stability
--maintain motivation with varied practice
93
how can you avoid social loafing?
--recognise + rewards the efforts of players
--give specific roles/ responsibilities
--use goal setting
--use video analysis
--avoid situations where social loafing may occur
--allow success in the early stages
--develop fitness
94
Attribution Theory
--the reasons given for winning or losing
--can be given by coaches, managers + players
95
locus of causality
--the amount of control the player had over the result
= internal - within control
= external - out of control
96
locus of stability
--reasons for winning/losing can be changeable
=unstable - likely to change over a period of time
= stable - unlikely to change over a short time period
97
what does internal + stable attribution refer to?
--ability
98
what does external + stable attribution refer to?
--task difficulty
99
what does internal + unstable attribution refer to?
--effort
100
what does external + unstable attribution refer to?
--luck
101
what does Vealey's model of Sport Confidence look at?
-- the influence of trait confidence, state confidence, the situation + competitive orientation
102
trait confidence
--a belief in the ability to do well in a range of sports
103
state confidence
--a belief in the ability to master a specific sporting moment
104
competitive orientation
--the degree to which a performer is drawn to challenging situations
105
objective sporting situation
--the performer takes into account the situation in which the task is being undertaken
106
what is the effect on trait + state confidence if the skill has been performed before?
--high trait confidence
--high state confidence
107
what can impact a performers trait/state confidence?
--crowd size
--score at the time
= can create pressure on players
108
how does a positive result/outcome impact confidence?
--evaluation my lead to improved confidence + developing a competitive orientation
--player is prepared to compete + try hard in most sporting situations = approach behaviour
109
how does a negative result/outcome impact confidence?
--evaluation may lead to decreased confidence + reduced competitive orientation
--player may reduce effort levels = NAF
110
what does Bandura's self-efficacy model look at?
--the concept of self-confidence in any one situation
--confidence can vary with the situation + from moment to moment
111
self-efficacy
--the belief in your ability to master a specific sporting situation
--impacts the confidence of individual players + players in the team
112
what are the four factors affecting self-efficacy?
--performance accomplishments = self-efficacy is influenced by what you have done in the past or past experiences
--vicarious experience = watching others do the task + being successful
--verbal persuasion = the power of reinforcement + encouragement
--emotional arousal = a perception of the effects of anxiety on sport
113
how can confidence be improved?
--use relaxation or stress management techniques to control arousal
--give an accurate demonstration
--point out past successful experiences
--give support + encouragement
--allow success during training by setting tasks within the capabilities of the performer
--set attainable goals
--attribute any success achieved to the athlete
--coach or player may use mental practice to help the performer go over the routine or sequence in the mind
114
define 'leader'
--someone who influences you towards your goals
--they play a role in maintaining effort + motivation by inspiring the team + setting targets
115
what are the two types of leaders?
-- EMERGENT = already belongs to the group
-- PRESCRIBED = selected from outside the group
116
what are the benefits of an emergent leader?
--already familiar with team members
--understand the team dynamics
--trusted + valued member so listened to + respected
117
what are the drawbacks of an emergent leader?
--maybe too familiar with the team + not taken seriously
--hard to make difficult decisions when teammates are friends
118
what are the benefits of a prescribed leader?
--brings new ideas to the team
--has a bit of distance from the team
119
what are the drawbacks of a prescribed leader?
--doesn't understand team dynamics
--make decisions based on knowledge, not what might be best for the team
120
what are the three styles of leadership?
--task-orientated/autocratic
--social/person orientated/democratic
--laissez-faire
121
describe the autocratic style of leadership.
--make all the decisions
--motivated to get results + reach targets + completing the task as quickly + effectively as possible
--will not delegate responsibility
--required in dangerous situations
--if the coach isn't present, the group may fail to work well
--best suited when quick decisions are needed for large groups
122
describe the democratic style of leadership.
--adopt a more sympathetic approach + seek opinions from the group before making decisions
--will delegate responsibility
--believe in consultation + interested in developing meaningful relationships
--group will usually continue to work when the coach isn't present
123
describe the laissez-faire style of leadership.
--leader will stand aside + allow the group to make its own decisions
--does very little
--used effectively when the group has lots of experience, but if they are not experienced, it could cause a breakdown in cohesion
124
What is Chelladurai's multi-dimensional model of leadership?
--he identified 3 influences that interact to produce effective leadership:
-> SITUATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS
->LEADER CHARACTERISTICS
-> GROUP MEMBER CHARACTERISTICS
--he identified 3 types of behaviour:
-> REQUIRED
-> ACTUAL
-> PREFERRED
125
situational characteristics
--the type of task, numbers in the team, time constraints + personality
126
leader characteristics
-- experience + personality
127
group member characteristics
--age, gender + experience
128
required behaviour
--what the situation demands
129
actual behaviour
--what the leader decided to do
130
preferred behaviour
--what the group would prefer
131
what does Fiedler's Contingency model focus on?
--the situation
--whether its good, bad or moderate
132
what style of leadership is best suited for most/least favourable situations?
--autocratic/task-orientated
133
what style of leadership is best suited for moderately favourable situations?
--democratic/ person-orientated
134
what does the favourability of a situation depend on?
--the task
--the leader-group relationship
--leaders authority
135
what are the features of a most favourable situation?
--strong leader
--group harmony
--clear task
--respect for leader
--high ability
--high motivation
--support
--task-orientated
136
what are the features of a least favourable situation?
--weak leader
--group hostility
--unclear task
--little respect for leader
--low ability
--low motivation
--some support
--task-orientated
137
what are the features of a moderately favourable situation?
--some harmony
--some motivation
--some clarity
--need for consultation
138
what is eustress?
--the positive feeling of stress
139
stressor
--the cause of the stress
140
name some examples of stressors.
--injury
--playing an important match
--playing against good opponents
--playing to get an important reward
--fear of failure caused by pressure of being watched by significant others
141
Cognitive stress
--psychological
--negative thoughts + feelings
--loss of concentration
142
attentional narrowing
--when the ability to take in information from the environment is reduce due to increased arousal + anxiety levels
143
Somatic stress
--physiological
--increased HR + sweating
--muscular tension
144
what are the cognitive stress management techniques?
--thought stopping
--positive self-talk
--imagery
--visualisation
--mental rehearsal
--attentional control + cue utilisation
145
explain thought stopping in terms of stress management.
--a learned action to stop negative thoughts + redirect attention back to the task
146
explain positive self-talk
--replacing negative thoughts with positive thoughts
147
imagery
--recreating a successful image of an action from a past performance
--gives the performer the feel of the action + the positive emotions felt from it
--can be used as a mental escape by imagining a calm place
148
visualisation
--uses a mental image of the skill perhaps performing the skill successfully in training which can then be re-lived in competition
149
internal imagery/visualisation
--looking at the emotions + feelings involved
e.g: kinaesthesis + satisfaction
150
external imagery/visualisation
--when the player visualises them performing the action as if they were on Tv
151
mental rehearsal
--going over the movements in the mind before an action takes place
152
attentional control + cue utilisation
-- performers focus on incorrect stimuli + lose concentration, so these techniques counteract this
153
cue utilisation
--as arousal levels increase, this influences the ability to taken on board cues
--low arousal = process plenty of cues
--high arousal = only limited info can be processed, causing attentional wastage
--moderate arousal = can pick up the relevant info + performance will be most successful
154
What did Niddefer say about attention styles?
--to avoid attentional wastage, performers choose an attention styles that suits the situation
--if the correct style is chosen at the right time, stress should be lowered + performance should be enhanced
155
what are the 4 attention styles?
--BROAD = when a number of cues are identified
--NARROW = focussing on one or two cues only
--EXTERNAL = info drawn from the environment
--INTERNAL = info used from within the performer
156
psychological skills training
-- the player trains + practices using cognitive stress management techniques, with the aid of a sports psychologist
157
what are the somatic stress management technique?
--biofeedback
--progressive muscular relaxation
--centring
158
biofeedback
--use of a measuring device to recognise physical changes that happen under stress
--eventually the performer can detect the symptoms without the device + can use the techniques to calm down
159
progressive muscular relaxation
-- muscles are tensed + then relaxed from the periphery of the body to the core
--correct use depends on ability to hold tension in a muscle for an extended period of time, otherwise incorrect use could cause injury
160
centring
--a form of breathing control
--performer learns to relax the shoulders + chest whilst concentrating on slow controlled breaths
--this diverts attention away form the stressful situation + once mastered, it can be used quickly + efficiently
