Stress 1 Flashcards
(159 cards)
1
Q
What does stress tell us about our bodies?
A
Our body is preparing us for survival (fight or flight)
2
Q
What can stress people?
A
- Exams
- Grades
- Deadlines
- Traffic
- Family relationships ̈ Facebook posts
- Careers
3
Q
What is not a significant stressor in our lives now compared to our evolutionary past lives?
A
1) Being eaten/preyed on
2) Catching and hunting food in the wild
4
Q
What stresses a zebra?
A
1) Serious physical injury
2) Predators (e.g. lions)
3) Starvation
5
Q
Who wrote a book on “Why zebras don’t get ulcers”?
A
Sapolsky 1994
6
Q
Sapolsky 1994 wrote….?
A
“Why zebras don’t get ulcers”
7
Q
What is stress?
A
A situation that ‘causes stress’ to a system
(e.g. aversive event)
Simply = something in the environment that causes us to respond in a specific way (stressed)
8
Q
Is stress precise?
A
Stress is imprecise (a term used too often in everyday language; lost its true meaning)
9
Q
A situation that ‘causes stress’ to a system
(e.g. aversive event)
What is this?
A
Stress
10
Q
The way we respond to a stressor
What is this?
A
Stress reactivity
11
Q
What is stress reactivity?
A
The way we respond to a stressor
12
Q
2022 Liz Truss - ended up avoiding PM questions when under substantial stress
Is this high or low stress reactivity?
A
High stress reactivity (did not endure criticism and hate well)
13
Q
2011 Donald Trump - after a scathing review, Trump sent the journalist a picture of herself with ‘face of a dog!,’ scrawled on it.
Is this high or low stress reactivity?
A
Low stress reactivity (endured criticism and hate well)
14
Q
How does our body change when we feel stress?
A
- Changes in breathing
- Exacerbate existing mental health conditions
- Changes in eating behaviour
- Diarrhea/ constipation
15
Q
How does our breathing change when we feel stressed?
A
We feel more anxious when there’s a stressor around
- Increased risk of asthma attack/ emphysema
- Hyperventilation during stress – increased risk of a panic attack in those with panic disorder (especially people with psychiatric disorders)
16
Q
How does our eating behaviour change when we feel stressed?
A
We might eat more or less than usual
e.g. During exam season, you feel more stressed than usual and thus, eat a lot more junk food than usual
17
Q
What does stress predict?
A
Mental health conditions
Based on DSM, many conditions are brought about by highly stressful points in one’s life
18
Q
What is it called when stress is prolonged?
A
Chronic stress
19
Q
What is Chronic stress?
A
When stress is prolonged and your body is in constant fight-or-flight mode
20
Q
What happens to our bodies if we experience chronic stress?
A
- Muscles of the body are in a constant state of guardedness (tensed)
- Tension-type headaches/ migraines
- Long-term heart/ blood problems which leads to Hypertension and increased risk of a Heart attack
21
Q
Why study stress?
A
Study the evidence that actually shows that health problems and chronic stress symptoms are more likely to occur due to stress
22
Q
Who conducted a multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis?
A
Everson-Rose et al. 2014
23
Q
What did Everson-Rose et al. 2014 do to investigate the effects of stress?
A
1) Did a multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis (heart problems)
2) A population-based study of 6749 adults (45-84 years old, free of cardiovascular disease)
3) Did a follow-up over an average of 8.5 years (to observe what happened to them)
4) Stress was measured as a burden in 5 domains to try and predict whether the participants went on to have heart problems at the longitudinal, follow-up point
24
Q
What were the 5 domains of stress burden in Everson-Rose et al.’s study?
A
- Health problems
- Health problems of others (whether they had to care for other people)
- Job or ability to work problems
- Relationships
- Finances
25
What did Everson-Rose et al. discover about chronic stress?
Chronic stress (i.e. burden) at baseline predicted an increased likelihood of stroke over the follow-up period (10% increase)
Held after accounting for race, age, sex, and education.
Simply = If you take a measure of the amount of chronic stress in people's lives, you can predict atherosclerosis (heart problems over time)
10% increase in the likelihood of a stroke in those who have high levels of chronic stress
26
Who unintentionally discovered that living things have a stress response?
Walter Cannon (1871-1945)
27
Who coined the term fight or flight response?
Walter Cannon (1871-1945)
28
What did Walter Cannon (1871-1945) do in his experiment?
- Experimented with rats
- Put rats in a stressful situation (e.g. fighting with other rats or constantly moving their cages when they're sleeping)
29
Is fight or flight acute or chronic stress response?
Acute stress response
30
What happens in fight or flight?
1) Arousal (something in the environment stresses you)
2) Increased blood supply and sugar (draining of BS to the superficial parts of the body; face becomes pale; BS floods into the deeper muscles for you to run or fight back)
3) Violent burst of energy (constriction of vessels going to the superficial parts of the body and dilation of the vessels going into deeper muscles)
31
Is fight or flight useful for short-term or long-term stressful tasks?
Short-term stressful tasks
32
When fight or flight is prolonged/continuous, what happens?
We experience negative consequences
e.g. severe withdrawal behaviour
e.g. increased risk of depression and anxiety
e.g. peptic ulcers
33
An injury is an example of what type of stressor?
Physical and acute stressor
34
Hunger and cancer are examples of what type of stressor?
Physical and chronic stressor
35
A deadline for an assignment is an example of what type of stressor?
Psychological and acute stressor
36
Chronic work pressure (lots of deadlines one after another) is an example of what type of stressor?
Psychological and chronic stressor
37
Humiliation is an example of what type of stressor?
Social and acute stressor
38
Chronic isolation is an example of what type of stressor?
Social and chronic stressor
39
In the 1900s, what were the 4 main causes of morality/death?
- Pneumonia
- Tuberculosis
- Influenza
- Childbirth (young women)
40
From 2007 onwards, what was (and is) the main cause of morality/death?
Cumulative damage (things predicted by chronic stressors; acute stressful incidents that have turned into longer-term issues that build over time)
- Heart disease
- Cancer
- Cerebrovascular disorders
41
Things predicted by chronic stressors; acute stressful incidents that have turned into longer-term issues that build over time
This is known as...?
Cumulative damage
42
What parts of our body are involved in the stress system/response?
HPA axis
1) Hypothalamus
2) Pituitary gland
3) Adrenal gland
43
What is the HPA axis?
1) Hypothalamus
2) Pituitary gland
3) Adrenal gland
Parts of the body involved in a stress response/system
44
Describe the stress response system/HPA axis.
1) We perceive a threat in the environment
2) Threat causes the hypothalamus to release hormones into the bloodstream (CRH hormone)
3) The CRH passes through the portal veins/small vessel to get to the pituitary gland (anterior pituitary)
4) When CRH is received by the AP, it triggers the release of the ACTH hormone
5) The ACTH hormone passes through the bloodstream and goes down the adrenal cortex
6) When ACTH is received by the adrenal cortex, it triggers the release of cortisol
7) Cortisol calms the stress response system overtime (anti-inflammatory) and slowly rises to the peak rate of 15-20 mins
45
Where is the adrenal cortex located?
Just above the kidneys
46
Describe the stress response system/HPA axis in simple terms
1) Perceived threat in the environment
2) Threat triggers the release of CRH from the hypothalamus
3) CRH travels through small vessels to the anterior pituitary
4) CRH triggers the release of ACTH from the anterior pituitary
5) ACTH travels through the bloodstream to the adrenal cortex
6) ACTH triggers the release of cortisol from the adrenal cortex
7) Cortisol is an anti-inflammatory steroid which calms the stress response system down over time
47
What is cortisol used to measure in experiments?
The amount of stress that someone's experiencing
48
Where is the hypothalamus located?
Centrally located in the brain
49
What is the hypothalamus involved in?
Homeostasis
50
What are the 3 types of homeostasis is the hypothalamus involved in?
1) Thermoregulation (our body sweats and/or pants if too hot and shivers if too cold
2) Circadian rhythms (receive projections from the back of the eye which tell us how much light there is around; tells us seasonal changes and day/night times)
3) Satiety & feeding (whether we are hungry or not)
51
Who examined the effects of lesions on cats?
Bard 1928
52
What did bard 1928 do in his study on the hypothalamus?
- Examined the effects of lesions on cats
- Removed most of the cerebral cortex either with or without the hypothalamus
53
What did bard 1928 discover in his study on the hypothalamus?
Cats who only had their cerebral cortex removed and not their hypothalamus showed undirected rage when regions of the brain are stimulated
Cats who only had their cerebral cortex removed as well as their hypothalamus showed no rage when regions of the brain are stimulated
54
What did bard's findings on the hypothalamus suggest about the involvement of the hypothalamus in fight or flight response?
- The hypothalamus is clearly involved in ‘fight or flight response
- Because when the hypothalamus was removed, there was no rage (no f or f response when stressed) but when it was intact there was rage (there was a f or f response)
- The hypothalamus also releases stress hormones (corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH))
55
CRH is released by ..... and travels through ....... to the .......
1) Hypothalamus
2) Small blood vessel
3) Pituitary gland
56
The master gland involved in different functions is known as...?
The pituitary gland
57
Where is the pituitary gland located?
Located beneath the hypothalamus
58
How much does the pituitary gland weigh?
0.5g
59
What hormones do the pituitary gland release List 4
1) Somatotrophins (e.g. HGH; growth hormones)
2) Thyrotrophins (TSH; metabolism hormones)
3) Gonadotrophins (LH, FSH; fertility hormones)
4) Corticotropins (adrenocorticotropic hormone - ACTH; stress response hormone)
60
What is the stress response hormone released by the pituitary gland?
ACTH
61
ACTH is released by...?
The pituitary gland
62
Which hormone passes through the blood stream and goes down the adrenal gland?
ACTH
63
Where are the adrenal glands located?
On top of your kidneys
64
What do adrenal glands do in stressful situations?
1) Releases Cortisol (in response to receiving
ACTH)
2) Releases Epinephrine (to prepare for fight or flight response)
65
What do high cortisol levels do to your body?
Changes your metabolism and immune system (immune system becomes suppressed)
66
True or False?
Activation of stress response system changes other inflammatory markers associated with mental health problems/changes
True
67
What is the condition caused by too much cortisol?
Cushing’s syndrome
68
What happens when someone has Cushing’s syndrome? List 5 symptoms
- Rapid weight gain – trunk & face
- Acne
- Reduced libido or infertility
- Thin skin
- Chronic tiredness
69
- Often from too much treatment with cortisol
- Rapid weight gain – trunk & face
- Acne
- Reduced libido or infertility
- Thin skin
- Chronic tiredness
These are symptoms of...?
Cushing’s syndrome
70
What is the condition caused by too little cortisol?
Addison’s disease
71
What is Addison’s disease caused by?
Often caused by the adrenal gland failing to produce enough cortisol
72
What is Cushing's syndrome caused by?
Often from too much treatment with cortisol
73
What happens when someone has Addison's disease? List 3 symptoms
- Weight loss
- Weakness/ lethargy
- In some cases, it leads to an adrenal crisis, typically brought about by stressors
74
What is an adrenal crisis? List 3 symptoms
- Low blood pressure
- Confusion/ psychosis
- Loss of consciousness
75
Adrenal crisis is typically brought about by ...?
Stressors
76
What is the sympathomedullary system?
Adrenaline system for fight or flight when stressed
77
Which system releases adrenaline?
Sympathomedullary system
78
What is involved in the sympathomedullary system?
- Hypothalamus
- Autonomic nervous system
- Adrenaline
79
What does the sympathomedullary system do?
- Release adrenaline/epinephrine
- Increase dopamine levels
- Increase pupil dilation
- Increase sweat
- Increase heart and breathing rate
80
When you're stressed, what happens to your sympathetic nervous system?
It activates
81
What system operates when you're relaxed?
Parasympathetic nervous system
82
Where does adrenaline come from?
Adrenal medulla
83
Adrenaline releases what?
Stored forms of energy in muscles
Turns protein to glucose (allows you to respond and act quickly in stressful situations)
84
Apart from releasing stored forms of energy in muscles, what else does adrenaline do? List 3 other roles
1) Stimulate the heart and other organs
2) Responsible for flight or flight response
3) Involved in fight, fright, flight and sex
85
Who thought of the General Adaption Syndrome?
Hans Selye
86
What did Selye do to investigate the General Adaption Syndrome?
- Animal experiments
- Expose animals to chronic stressors
87
In Selye's General Adaption Syndrome, what happened when animals were exposed to chronic stressors?
It led to a sequence of 3 stages:
- Alarm
- Resistance
- Exhaustion
88
What was the sequence of 3 stages in Selye's General Adaption Syndrome?
- Alarm
- Resistance
- Exhaustion
89
Describe the sequence of 3 stages in Selye's General Adaption Syndrome
1) Alarm = When you're met with a stressor, your body is alarmed by it. The body goes into a fight-or-flight state.
2) Resistance = The more you experience the stressor, the more you become used to it. The body goes into a fight or flight state less and less often
3) Exhaustion = If the stressor continues beyond the body's capacity,you lose the ability to adapt
90
What happens in the alarm stage of Selye's General Adaption Syndrome?
You're confronted with a stressor
Arousal of the Autonomic Nervous System (primarily during the first encounter with the stressor)
Resistance to stressors drops below normal with the potential for shock
Hormones like epinephrine and cortisol are released into the bloodstream
Sympathetic nervous system activated
91
What happens in the resistance stage of Selye's General Adaption Syndrome?
You are continuously exposed to the stressor
You develop a resistance (parasympathetic system resutrns physiological functions to normal levels (your body adapts to the stressors)
Blood glucose, epinephrine and cortisol all remain high
Heart rate, blood pressure, breathing all increased
Overtime, resistance to stressor increases, levels out at normal parasympathetic system levels
92
What happens in the exhaustion stage of Selye's General Adaption Syndrome?
If the stressor continues beyond the body's capacity, the stressor depletes the available resources to adapt to the stressor
Loss of ability to adapt to situations
Prone to illness and even death
93
What is resistance?
Adaptation to environmental stressors; parasympathetic system adapts to the environmental stressors
Simply = When you're exposed to a stressor but you don't react in an alarming way because you've encountered the stressor many times before
94
Adaptation to environmental stressors; parasympathetic system adapts to the environmental stressors
This is known as...?
Resistance
95
If the stressor continues beyond the body's capacity, the stressor depletes the available resources to adapt to the stressor
This is known as...?
Exhaustion
96
Arousal of the Autonomic Nervous System (primarily during the first encounter with the stressor)
This is known as...?
Alarm
97
Describe Bern's study of the Neurobiology of dread
- 29 participants underwent MRI
- Looked at people with high and low levels of dread and how their brain changes might differ
- Measured what the highest amount of electric shock was Ps could tolerate
- Ps were given info about voltage level and waiting time (e.g. higher voltage level but shorter intervals vs. lower voltage level but longer intervals)
- To start, 100% of trials had voltage
- Ps had to choose: 90% voltage in 3 secs or 60% voltage in 27 secs
- Separated Ps based on their choices and measured brain activity
98
In Bern's study of the Neurobiology of dread, what did the results show?
People who are extreme dreaders would rather choose a higher voltage with a shorter waiting time rather than a longer voltage with a lower waiting time
They would rather get it done and over with than having to anticipate and be anxious during the waiting time
99
More voltage = .....
Greater activation in the pain network
100
In Bern's study of the Neurobiology of dread, what do extreme dreaders show between cue and shock?
They show earlier and more sustained activity in the pain network between cue and shock
101
Extreme dreaders show earlier and more sustained activity in the pain network between cue and shock. Why?
- Physiological response
- The more shock = the greater the activation in the pain network
- As they waited, they start showing increased activity in the pain network
102
Is this an adaptive response (resistance to stressors) or a stress disorder (exhaustion/inability to adapt to stressors anymore)?
Mobilisation of energy
Adaptive
103
Is this an adaptive response (resistance to stressors) or a stress disorder (exhaustion/inability to adapt to stressors anymore)?
Increased cardiovascular tone
Adaptive
104
Is this an adaptive response (resistance to stressors) or a stress disorder (exhaustion/inability to adapt to stressors anymore)?
Suppression of digestion
Adaptive
105
Is this an adaptive response (resistance to stressors) or a stress disorder (exhaustion/inability to adapt to stressors anymore)?
Suppression of growth
Adaptive
106
Is this an adaptive response (resistance to stressors) or a stress disorder (exhaustion/inability to adapt to stressors anymore)?
Fatigue, diabetes
Stress disorder
107
Is this an adaptive response (resistance to stressors) or a stress disorder (exhaustion/inability to adapt to stressors anymore)?
Peptic ulcers
Stress disorder
108
Is this an adaptive response (resistance to stressors) or a stress disorder (exhaustion/inability to adapt to stressors anymore)?
Stress-induced hypertension
Stress disorder
109
Is this an adaptive response (resistance to stressors) or a stress disorder (exhaustion/inability to adapt to stressors anymore)?
Suppression of reproduction
Adaptive
110
Is this an adaptive response (resistance to stressors) or a stress disorder (exhaustion/inability to adapt to stressors anymore)?
Psychogenic dwarfism
Stress disorder
111
Is this an adaptive response (resistance to stressors) or a stress disorder (exhaustion/inability to adapt to stressors anymore)?
Amenorrhea, impotency
Stress disorder
112
Is this an adaptive response (resistance to stressors) or a stress disorder (exhaustion/inability to adapt to stressors anymore)?
Suppression of the immune system
Adaptive
113
Is this an adaptive response (resistance to stressors) or a stress disorder (exhaustion/inability to adapt to stressors anymore)?
Sharpening of cognition
Adaptive
114
Is this an adaptive response (resistance to stressors) or a stress disorder (exhaustion/inability to adapt to stressors anymore)?
Increased disease risk
Stress disorder
115
Is this an adaptive response (resistance to stressors) or a stress disorder (exhaustion/inability to adapt to stressors anymore)?
Neuron death
Stress disorder
116
In Saenger et al.'s study, what did they find about a child's physical growth when they are stressed?
Stress/psychosocial dwarfism
A child can suffer from stress dwarfism (not grow in height if stressed)
117
In Saenger et al.'s study, what did they find about a child's stress dwarfism?
When a child was put in a better environment (better hospital), his growth rate increases
But when his favourite nurse leaves, his growth rate shrinks
When his favourite nurse returns, he starts growing again
Suggests = Psychosocial stressors lead to a change in development
118
What did Maras and Baram do in their study on stress and brain structure?
Compared the neurons of the hippocampus in rats in a stressful situation and rats in a non stressful situation
119
Describe the study on stress and brain structure in rats and their hippocampus
- Controlled rats (happy rats) were compared with stressful rats
- Stressful rats were put in stressful environments (e.g. shaking their cage wen they're sleeping)
120
What did studies find on the neurons in the hippocampus of rats that were stressed?
There were fewer dendrites that come out of the neurons of stressed rats than in controlled rates
121
What does the immune system mainly do?
Protect the body from infection (bacteria, viruses, foreign organisms/bodies)
122
What is the immune system mainly derived from?
White blood cells
123
What are the components that make up a white blood cell?
1) Bone marrow (B lymphocytes)
2) Thymys gland (T lymphocytes)
124
Protect the body from infection (bacteria, viruses, foreign organisms/bodies)
What system does this?
Immune system
125
White blood cells are found in what system?
Immune system
126
1) Bone marrow (B lymphocytes)
2) Thymys gland (T lymphocytes)
These are components that make up...?
White blood cells
127
What can stress (via cortisol) do to the immune system?
Can directly suppress the activity of the immune system
128
What can directly suppress the activity of the immune system?
Stress, via cortisol (anti-inflammatory system)
129
What did Keller do in his experiment investigating chronic stress and the immune system in mice?
- Shocked rats
- 2 conditions :
(1) Rats had adrenal glands removed
(2) Rats had adrenal glands intact
130
What did Keller discover in his experiment investigating chronic stress and the immune system in mice?
When mice were shocked, B and T cells reduced
Mice with the removed adrenal gland had no immune change to shock but a normal immune response to antigen (bacteria protein)
131
What did the results of Keller's experiment investigating chronic stress and the immune system in mice show?
The adrenal gland (cortisol system) is involved in immune functions
132
What did Kiecolt-Glaser discover about the immune system of people who are caretakers of others with diseases?
Bereavement, caring for others with Alzheimer's disease, and marital disease tend to have a reduced immune functioning
They tend to have a change in their immune system and ability to respond to stressors
133
What did Kiecolt-Glaser do in their experiment investigating chronic stress and healing?
- 13 caregivers for relatives with dementia
- 13 people who are not caretakers (control)
- Ps matched for age and household income
- Gave Ps a punch biopsy (cutting a bit of skin on the arm) and looked at how long the cut took to heal
134
What did Kiecolt-Glaser discover in their experiment investigating chronic stress and healing?
Wounds took longer to heal in the caregiver group relative to the control group and the wounds remained larger for longer
135
What did the results of Kiecolt-Glaser's experiment investigating chronic stress and healing suggest?
Caregivers have higher stress levels than control Ps
Due to higher stress, their wounds took longer to heal
Suggests stressors change the immune system function and affect healing
136
What did Glaser et al. discover about exam stress and the immune system?
During exams, immune system responses become weaker
There is an increased risk of contracting acute infections
There is an increased risk of Epstein Barr virus and cold sores
137
What did Glaser et al. do in their study investigating exam stress and the immune system?
Drew blood samples from 40 1st year medical students during exam periods and one month after exams
Looked at how their immune system changes due to stress
138
What are the 4 main modifiers of the stress response (how do we reduce the effects of stress)?
1) Outlets for frustration
2) Sense of predictability
3) A perception of life improving
4) Change in social support
139
What did Jay Weiss do in his study investigating the effects of outlets of frustration in stressful situations?
- Rats received mild shocks
- 2 conditions:
(1) Rats were shocked and stayed where they were
(2) Rats were shocked but were given an outlet of frustration (gnawing on a wooden bar, eating or drinking or running on a wheel)
140
What did Jay Weiss discover in his study investigating the effects of outlets of frustration in stressful situations?
Rats who were shocked but were given an outlet of frustration (gnawing on a wooden bar, eating or drinking or running on a wheel) had fewer stress-induced peptic ulcers
Rats who were shocked but stayed where they were had prolonged stress responses; increased heart rate, cortisol increased, the number of peptic ulcers increased
141
When rats are given a warning bell before a shock, what happens?
They have fewer peptic ulcers and less prone to chronic stress
142
When rats receive food at intermittent intervals, rather than at random, what happens?
Glucocorticoid levels decrease (less prone to an increase in stress-related hormones)
143
If the rat is given a lever and can avoid shock, what happens?
Stress response reduces even if the lever is disconnected to the taser
144
When people are met with an annoying noise and are given a button to press to stop the noise, what happens? Why?
Blood pressure reduces, even when the button isn't pressed
Because by knowing that you can control the noise does not make you stressed (you can predict that the sound would disappear if you simply press the button)
145
What did Rodin and Langer do in their experiment investigating the sense of control in stressful situations?
- Studied people in nursing homes (long-term)
- 2 conditions:
(1) Ps made decisions for themselves (i.e. when to watch films, where to receive guests, which houseplant to look after)
(2) No instructions to make decisions (dictated by other people in the nursing homes)
- Checked on both groups again after 1.5 years
146
What did Rodin and Langer find in their experiment investigating the sense of control in stressful situations?
After 1.5 years, people who were allowed to make decisions for themselves in the nursing homes were more cheerful, active, and alert and half as many had died compared to the dictated group
147
What happens in an experiment investigating the sense of life improving after stressful situations in rats?
- Rats were given shocks
- 2 conditions:
(1) On day 1, group A received 10 shocks/hour and on day 2 they received 25 shocks/hour
(2) On day 1, group B received 50 shocks/hour and on day 2 they received 25 shocks/hour
- Measured blood pressure of rats
148
- Rats were given shocks
- 2 conditions:
(1) On day 1, group A received 10 shocks/hour and on day 2 they received 25 shocks/hour
(2) On day 1, group B received 50 shocks/hour and on day 2 they received 25 shocks/hour
What do you think happened to the blood pressure of rats in group A and group B after going through the shocks on day 2?
Group A after day 2 shocks = higher blood pressure
Group B after day 2 shocks = lower blood pressure
Group B initially received worse punishment on day 1 than on day 2. They have a sense that their life is improving and therefore was less stressed after receiving day 2 shocks
149
After a stress response, primates who are surrounded by strangers or are alone tend to have ......?
Higher cortisol levels
150
After a stress response, primates who are surrounded by friends tend to have ......?
Lower cortisol levels
151
When going through a stressful environment (e.g. public speaking, an argument with strangers), people who are alone tend to have ......?
Higher cortisol levels
152
When going through a stressful environment (e.g. public speaking, an argument with strangers), people who have a supportive friend present tend to have ......?
Lower cortisol levels/response
153
According to observational studies, people with spouses live...?
a. Longer
b. Shorter
a. Longer
154
According to observational studies, when a spouse dies, the risk of dying...?
a. Decreases
b. Increases
b. Increases
155
According to observational studies, when a mother has recently lost her child, there is...?
A higher risk of disease/morality
156
Stress comes in the form of...? List 2 things
Physical or Psychosocial stressors
157
The way we respond to stress is...?
Stress reactivity
158
The body responds to stress through the ..... axis and .......... system
1. HPA axis
2. Sympathetic nervous system
159
Prolonged stress can ........... affect the ......... system
1) Negatively
2) Immune
