Stress Flashcards

Question

Life changes (e.g. divorce, death of a loved one) as a source of stress

Answer 1

− Life changes are sig. events which require a lot of adjustment too someone’s life these events cause stress, e.g. marriage, child birth or a change of job − On the basis of 5000 patient’s records Holmes + Rahe made a the social readjustment rating scale (SRRS) scale a list of 43 major life events that were perceived as potentially stressful because they needed considerable psychological adjustment/change − In their list each event is allocated a point value to reflect the relative amount of change required called a life-change units (LCUs) – e.g. death of a spouse had the highest LCU of 100 whereas a minor violation of the law scored the lowest of 11 LCU points − According to Holmes + Rahe an overall score of 300+ sig. increases one’s risk of illness

Answer 2

− Procedure: 2500 male American sailors were given the SRRS to assess how many life events they’d experienced in the previous 6 months then over the following 6 months detailed records were kept of each sailors health status – life change scores were correlated with the sailors illness scores − Findings: → There was a positive correlation of +0.118 bet. life change scores + illness scores → Although the pos correlation was small it did indicate that there was a meaningful relationship bet LCUs + health as all LCU scores increased so did the frequency of illness − Conclusion: → As LCUs were positively correlated with illness scores experiencing life events increases the chances of stress related health breakdown → Since the correlation wasn’t perfect life events cannot be the only factor contributing to illness − Eval: → Is a correlational study. It provides a possible relationship between high levels of stress and poor immune function. Because it is a correlational study, cause and effect relationship cannot be established. → As some participants were ‘harmed’ physically (catching a cold), there is an ethical issue to be considered.

Answer 3

P: Further research support: e.g. Cohen et al. (1993) E: Gave nasal drops to ppts that contained the common cold virus + also assessed life changes using the Secedual of Recent Experiences. Ppts were quarantined to see if they developed a cold. Ppts with LCUs were more likely to get infected with the cold virus. C: Supports the link between life changes and illness

Answer 4

P: Methodological problems: However, much of the research into life changes is correlational, and uses self-report measures and retrospective recall to assess levels of stress. E: The use of self-report measures can lead to social desirability bias + difficulty in interpreting the different life events as some people may perceive an event ag what it means to have trouble with the in-laws, differently to someone else. The SRRS also relies on people’s memory of past events, retrospective memory which can result in forgotten memories and or memory distortion. C: Decreases validity

Answer 5

P: Flaws in the SRRS as a measure of life changes: Dated, androcentric, failure to distinguish between positive and negative life changes, failure to take account of individual differences in experiences of life changes. E: The SRRS is outdated. It was generated in 1967, therefore some of the items may not be relevant today, e.g. the price of mortgages. It is also androgenic + only applies to adults, e.g. items related to marriage, children etc. are targeted at an older generation where as young people have different stress, e.g. exams E: Individual differences and the SRRS: for example some people dislike holidays and Christmas and these would be at the top of their list of stressors rather than at the bottom. Others might find marital separation a relief so this would be near the bottom of their list of stressors. Each of us could devise our own personal SRRS. C: Not relevant for all individuals

Answer 6

P: The role of daily hassles: Other research suggests that daily hassles are a better predictor of well-being than life changes. E: Kanner et al. (1981)

Answer 7

− Daily hassles are relatively minor frustrations + annoyances of everyday life – their emotional effects are fairly short lived but if they accumulate over a period of time this could affect our well-being e.g. missing the train, forgetting homework, traffic jam etc. − Measuring daily hassles: Kanner, Lazurus and colleagues devised the Hassles Scale (Kanner et al., 1981), a self-report measure. The original scale had 117 items. It was thought that positive events could offset the impact of daily hassles, thus an Uplifts Scale was introduced with 135 items e.g. relating well to friends, feeling healthy, getting enough sleep.

Answer 8

− The accumulation effect – there is an acclimation of minor daily stressors which creates persistent irritations which leads to finding other hassles more stressful + so on − Although research has generally focused on the role of either life changes or daily hassles and suggested that daily hassles are a better predictor of well-being, it might be the case that the two factors influence one another, in that the effects of daily hassles depend on whether the individual is experiencing any life changes i.e. life changes may make individuals more vulnerable to daily hassles. This is referred to as the amplification effect – chronic stress cause by negative life changes can ‘wear people out’ making them more probe to stress from daily hassles − Alternatively, it might be the case that daily hassles are a greater source of stress in terms of their impact on well-being because individuals receive less social and emotional support from others than for life events. - Research conducted by Flett et al. (1995) found that 320 students who read a scenario describing an individual who experienced either a life event or daily hassle rated those experiencing life events as needing + receiving more social support

Answer 9

− Procedure: → 100 participants (48 men and 52 women) aged 45-67 completed the Hassles and Uplifts Scale (HSUP) for events over the previous month and continued to do this once a month for nine months. → Participants also completed a life events scale for the six months preceding the beginning of the study and also for the two-yearly periods prior to that. Finally they completed it again at the end of the study → Two measures were used to assess psychological well-being: the Hopkins Symptom Checklist, which assess symptoms such as anxiety and depression, and the Bradburn Morale Scale, which assesses positive and negative emotion. Participants filled these out each month. − Findings: → Hassles: concerns about weight; health of a family; rising prices of common goods; home maintenance; too many things to do. → Uplifts: relating well with spouse/lover; relating well with friends; completing a task; feeling healthy; getting enough sleep. → Generally, the hassles and uplifts identified differed to those selected by a group of students. For example, they identified more problems related to having too much to do and not being able to relax. → There was a significant negative correlation between frequency of hassles and psychological well-being - therefore, participants with the fewest hassles showed the highest level of well-being. → Hassles were also a better predictor of illness than life events. → Overall, it was found that hassles were a better predictor of well-being than both life events and uplifts. − Conclusion: This research suggests that there is a stronger relationship between daily hassles and both psychological and physical well-being than life events and well-being.

Answer 10

P: Further research support: e.g. Bouteyre et al. (2007); Sher (2004) E: Correlated daily hassles against depressive symptoms amongst 233 first yr. psychology uni students. A positive correlation was found between scores on the hassles part of the HSUP scale + the incidence of depressive symptoms. C: Findings suggest that the daily hassles experienced by students heading off to university are a sig. risk factor of depression, therefore showing the important of the effects of daily hassles on health and well-being.

Answer 11

P: Methodological problems: However, much of the research into daily hassles is correlational, uses self-report measures and retrospective recall to assess levels of stress. E: Although correlational data can identify key links between daily hassles and well-being that would be unethical to study experimentally there are problems with relying on this type of research technique. it is difficult to establish a cause and effect relationship meaning that the results can’t be generalised. It also tends to be difficult to replicate a study to test its validity therefore reducing its replicability. C: Reduced reliability of findings and makes it difficult to generalise findings to everyday life

Answer 12

P: Individual differences: Research suggests that there are individual differences in what constitutes a ‘hassle’. E: Miller et al. (1992) - Found that pets appear to sever different roles for female + male pet owners. For female’s pets were commonly associated with uplifts but for male’s pets were more likely to be associated with hassles C: Difficult to generalise and shows that people have different daily hassles and that certain ‘daily hassles’ effect people differently, it is therefore not a universal theory

Answer 13

P: Amplification effect: However, life changes and daily hassles may influence each other. E: Although research has generally focused on the role of either life changes or daily hassles + suggested that daily hassles are a better predictor of well-being. It may be the case that the two factors influence one another, in that the effects of daily hassles depend on whether the individual is experiencing any life changes i.e. life changes may make individuals more vulnerable to daily hassles.

Answer 14

− Workplace stressors are aspects if the working environment that we experience as stressful + which result in a stress reaction in the body often having a neg. impact on ones health + lifestyle practices e.g. heavy drinking + smoking as well as poor performance at work, decreased productivity, absenteeism + high staff turnover − Physical environment – e.g. space, temperature, lighting, office arrangement can make work more difficult to complete − Workload – often reported as one of the most stressful aspects of the workplace + long working hrs can have a sig. impact on family life − Control – perceived lack of control increases the stress response + contributes to depression + stress related illnesses − Role conflict/ambiguity – the requirements for a particular work role are unclear or poorly defined can contribute to other sources of workplace stress e.g. relationship with co-workers + lack of control

Answer 15

− Procedure: → High risk group: 14 finishers – machine paced, isolated, repetitive, skilled, level of productivity determined wage rates for the factory → Low risk (control group): 10 cleaners – varied work, self-paces, sociable job → Levels of stress hormones (adrenaline + nor adrenaline) in urine samples were measured, samples were taken on work days + rest days → Stress related illness + absenteeism was reorder − Findings: → High risk group of ‘finishers’ produce more stress hormones on work days then on rest days + higher levels than cleaners → High risk group had higher levels of stress related illness + greater absenteeism than cleaners − Conclusion: Work stressors (e.g. responsibility, repetitiveness, machine paced) can lead to stress related illnesses

Answer 16

− Procedure: → This study followed over 10,000 UK civil servants (men and women) of different grades who have worked in Whitehall, London since 1985. → Some participants who work in higher grades (e.g. professional staff such as accountants), have high levels of workload and control, whereas those at lower grades (e.g. administrative staff) have less workload and control. Therefore, both grades are likely to experience stress, but for different reasons. → At the beginning of the study participants completed a range of different questionnaires assessing their job workload, subjective sense of job control and levels of social support. → 11 years later coronary heart disease (CHD) risk was assessed as a measure of the effects of stress. − Findings: → Marmot et al. found that the highest grade workers had the highest workload and highest sense of job control. → High workload was not found to be associated with CHD (which challenges Johansson’s findings). → However, low job control amongst the lower grade workers was associated with CHD. Those employees with low job control were 3x more likely to have heart attacks than those with high job control. → The combined effect of low job control/high workload (referred to as the ‘job-strain model’) was strongest among the younger workers and was not reduced by high levels of social support. − Conclusion: → Low job control can cause stress related illnesses e.g. CHD → Younger, less experienced workers are more vulnerable to work place stress

Answer 17

P: Methodological problems – Marmot’s research relied heavily on self-report questionnaires. Furthermore it is difficult to isolate + test specific workplace stressors E: Questionnaires – social desirability bias, different perception + misinterpretation of what e.g. job control is (under or over exaggeration can occur) E: It isn’t really possible to isolate + test single workplace stressors (e.g. control + workload) therefore it is difficult to highlight which workplace stressors are specifically related to stress related illness

Answer 18

P: Individual differences – Johansson + Marmot’s research failed to control for individual differences in terms of personality traits + perception of stress E: Many of the research studies into the effects of workplace stressors fail to control for the role of personality e.g. type A personalities tend to be very competitive + strive towards goals however they are also easily ‘wound-up’ + tend to have high blood pressure

Answer 19

P: Positive effects of the workplace – however not all workplace stressors are harmful as some aspects of the workplace contribute to better physical + psychological well-being E: The workplace presents opportunities to increase self-esteem, confidence, motivation, it gives people a sense of purpose + fulfilment C: These all contribute to positive physical + psychological well-being

Answer 20

P: Relevance of such sources in today’s changing workplace – arguable the findings of Johansson + Marmot’s research into workload + control bear little relevance to the workplaces of today E: More people are work from home e.g. modern technology means people can stay in touch with the office but work from home, they can therefore work around family commitments

Answer 21

− As stress affects the body physically, it presents ways of objectively measuring stress: → Blood and urine samples to determine levels of stress hormones → Blood pressure → Speech analysis → Skin conductance response (or galvanic skin response) − Immediate stress is related to sympathetic arousal of the autonomic nervous system, resulting in the production of adrenaline and noradrenaline, which cause a number of physiological responses e.g. increased heart and breathing rates, blood pressure and sweating. − Skin is electrically active and the sweat created from the body’s response to stress increases the skin’s ability to conduct electricity, which is known as the skin conductance response. This effect is strongest in the hands and soles of the feet because of the high density of sweat glands at these points. − Individuals have a higher skin conductance response (SCR) when stressed. SCR readings need to be taken in stressed and non-stressed states so that comparisons can be made.

Answer 22

− Two electrodes are placed on a person’s index and middle finger. A very small voltage (0.5V) is applied across these electrodes. By measuring the current that flows, conductance can be reported. − SCR readings are measured through use of a polygraph – the use of a polygraph involves an individual sitting quietly for around 30 mins so that a baseline score can be established to which readings are compares when the individual is stressed

Answer 23

− Villarejo et al: → Used a computer operated stress sensor to measure stress levels in 16 adults who were required to complete a test involving different levels of stress for instance being relaxed, solving maths questions + exposure to anxiety-creating stimuli. → It was found that SCR readings were able to detect patients different stress levels with a successful rate of 76.5%, supporting the idea of SCR being capable though not perfect method of measuring stress levels − Reynaud et al: Showed film exerts inc. ones to elicit fear to 15 neurotic + 18 high neurotic ppts + found that SCR readings were higher in neurotic ppts which suggests that SCR measurements have a useful role to play in displaying stress levels in different types of ppts

Answer 24

Skin conductance response allows for stress to be measured in an objective way. - Readings can be combined with recordings of heart rate, respiratory rate and blood pressure. - They can also be used continuously throughout research and go relatively unnoticed by participants. - They are easy to perform and relatively low cost

Answer 25

P: However, what is actually being measured by SCR is sympathetic arousal, which occurs in response to any emotion. This is therefore a potential drawback of the measure. E: If the ppt is experiencing fear, anger, surprise or sexual arousal they could all lead to increased sweat + increased conductance C: So it may not be stress that had caused the activity of the sympathetic nervous system E: Furthermore, SCR measurements are affected by external factors such as temperature and humidity, which could lead to inconsistent readings. It can also be affected by internal factors, such as medications and alcohol

Answer 26

P: Research also suggests that the physiological response can be affected by cognitive perception. E: For example, changes in skin conductance have been observed depending on whether a person feels they have been treated fairly or not. E: Interestingly, research by Oshumi and Ohira (2010) found that psychopaths are much less concerned by whether they were treated unfairly or not and a general lack of emotional responsiveness means that they can lie without any associated physiological response. In this instance, SCR measurements would reveal very little, if anything, about the individual’s stress levels and would not be a very dependable measure of deceitfulness

Answer 27

P: Moreover, research suggests that SCR is not a reliable method for measuring stress levels. E: Bakker et al (2011) showed that SCR readings vary not only from person to person but from one day to another for the same person C: Again illustrating their lack of reliability in measuring stress levels

Answer 28

``` − Time pressure: → Working against the clock → Doing several things at once → Irritation and impatience with others → Unhappy doing nothing − Excessive Competitiveness: → Always plays to win in games and at work → Achievement measured as material productivity − Anger + hostility: → Self-critical → Easily irritated → Hostile to the outside world → Anger often directed inwards − Type A is linked to an increased risk of developing heart disease ```

Answer 29

− Contrasts with Type A personalities − Tend to live life at a lower stress level − Work more steadily − Not as concerned with time constraints and deadlines − Enjoy achievement but do not become overly stressed when they do not achieve − Type B is linked to low levels of stress + therefore good health

Answer 30

− Procedure: → Participants - 3200 Californian men aged 39-59 → It was a longitudinal study and involved structured interviews to determine whether participants were Type A, X or B → 25 questions were asked about how they responded to everyday pressures, e.g. how would they cope with having to wait in a long queue. → The interview was conducted in a provocative manner to try to elicit Type A behaviour. For example, the interviewer might speak slowly and hesitantly so that a Type A person would want to interrupt and get the interview over. − Findings: → After eight and a half years - 257/3200 had developed coronary heart disease by the end of the study → 70% of these men were from the Type A group. → Over 12%, who were Type A, had a heart attack DURING the study. − Conclusion: Type A behaviour patterns increases vulnerability to heart disease − Criticisms: → What were some of the key lifestyle variables that could have increased the participants’ vulnerability to heart disease, that weren’t controlled for? → Diet, smoking, weight gain, lack of exercise may have occurred during the period of the study and some of these things may have had a negative effect on health. → Gender Bias in the study – because the study only focused on men it is not possible to generalise the finding to females. → Lack of cause and effect – this was not an experiment so cause and effect can’t be assumed. The study is correlational and there are other possible variables linked to CHD

Answer 31

P: A strong correlation between Type A behaviour and cardiovascular disorders was found by Friedman and Rosenman (1974). E: Ragland + Brand found that 15% of Friedman + Rosenmans original sample had died of CHD with age, high blood pressure + smoking proving to be sig. factors but little evidence of type A personality being a risk factor. C: This suggests that the original conclusions are unsupported

Answer 32

P: Arguably, the Type A personality is too broad a description. E: Matthew + Haynes found that CHD was most associated with the hostility trait of type A men especially those expressing high levels of hostility supporting R + R’s findings + identifying the key trait related to CHD. E: Forshaw supported these findings that the type A characteristic of hostility was the best single predictor of CHD + a better predictor than type A personality as a whole. C: This suggests that it is the specific trait of hostility rather than type A personality that increases the risk of developing stress-related illness though it doesn’t mean that hostility causes CHD

Answer 33

P: Other factors, like perceptions of control, could moderate stress outcomes amongst Type A individuals E: Chesney + Rosenhan found that control was an important factor that interacted with personality type to determine response to stressors – type A managers experiences greater anxiety when they were not in control while other managers experiences greater anxiety when they were in control C: The issue of perception of control in moderating stress outcome may be worthy of further research

Answer 34

− Type C individuals are introverted, sensitive, thoughtful + inclined towards perfectionism, taking everything seriously + working very hard − They are conformist + thorough in everything they do + exceedingly dependable − However because they tend not to express their emotions are unassertive + try to please others even when it upsets themselves, they are easily stressed + prone to developing certain cancer, depression + illnesses associated with immunosuppression

Answer 35

− Procedure: → Over a period of two years, women attending a cancer clinic in London were asked to participate in a study. → In total, 75 women were interviewed and asked about how often they expressed affection, unhappiness by crying or losing control when angry in order to assess typical patterns of emotional behaviour. → The interviewer was not aware of the initial diagnosis of cancer. − Findings: Those women whose breast lumps were found to be cancerous were also found to have reported that they both experienced an expressed far less anger (Type C) than those women whose lumps were found to be non-cancerous. − Conclusions: This research supports a link between cancer and the suppression of anger. − Evaluation: → Unethical → Temoshok (1987) found that Type C personalities were cancer prone, with such individuals having difficulty expressing emotion and suppressing or inhibiting emotions, especially negative ones like anger. → This was backed up by Weinman (1995) who found it likely that such personality characteristics influenced the progression of cancer and the patient’s survival time → Practical issues – prevent + slow the growth of cancerous cells

Answer 36

− Defined by Kobasa − Helps to explain why some people are more resistant to stress than others − Includes three personality factors that defend the individual against the negative effects of stress − Control: Having the belief that you can influence what happens in your life, rather than attributing control to outside influences − Commitment: A sense of purpose and involvement in the world around you, the world is seen as something to engage with rather than to be apart from. Committed people tend to resist giving up in times of stress − Challenge: Life changes are seen as challenges to overcome, or as opportunities rather than threats and stressors

Answer 37

− Procedure: → About 800 middle- and upper-level executives (all male) from a large utility company in the US were contacted and asked to identify the life events they had experienced in the previous three years (using a slightly adapted version of the SRRS). They were also asked to list any illness episodes they had experienced in this time. → Kobasa then identified those who were either high stress/low illness (86 participants in this group) or high stress/high illness (75 participants in this group). → Three months later, the final participants were asked to complete several personality tests, which included assessments of control, commitment and challenge. − Findings: → Individuals in the high stress/low illness group scored high on all three characteristics of the hardy personality. → The high stress/low illness group scored lower on those variables. − Conclusions: This research suggests that highly stressed individuals do not experience illness because they have a hardy personality.

Answer 38

− Evaluation: → Gender bias: Kobasa’s research only involved males (who were all wealthy managers!). More recent research suggests that there are gender differences in arousal levels associated with hardiness. – Wiebe (1991) gave a stressful evaluation task to participants categorised as either low or high in hardiness. Those high in hardiness saw the task as less threatening and responded to it more positively. Males high in hardiness displayed less physiological arousal than males of low hardiness, though no differences in physiological arousal were noted in female participants. Though supporting claims for hardiness being related to lower experience of stress, the findings suggest some gender differences in arousal levels associated with hardiness. → Further research support – Sarafino found that people who undertook hardiness training developed lower blood pressure and felt less stressed, suggesting hardiness reduces the negative effects of stress and can be taught to people as a stress management technique.

Answer 39

P: Most of the research support for the link between hardiness and health has relied upon data obtained through self-report questionnaires. E: Ppts may not respond truthfully either because they cannot remember or because they which to present themselves in a socially acceptable manner. C: Social desirability bias can be a problem as ppts often answer in a way to portray themselves in a good light

Answer 40

P: Some researchers have argued that the characteristics of the hardy personality can be more simply explained by the concept of negative affectivity (NA). E: Research has found that negative affectivity and hardiness correlate well - high-NA individuals are more likely to report dissatisfaction, dwell more on their failures and focus more on the negative aspects of themselves and the world. C: Therefore, ‘hardy individuals’ may be low on NA. This was supported by Funk (1992), who argued that low hardiness is the same as being negative and it is this that leads to the negative effects of stress.

Answer 41

P: Is hardiness a personality type? Research suggests that all three elements of hardiness are not equally important. E: Research by Rotter (1966) found that individuals with a high internal locus of control feel stress less. E: Cohen et al. (1993) found that participants who felt their lives were predictable and uncontrollable were twice as likely to develop colds as those who felt in control. C: This research therefore suggests that control is the key factor.

Answer 42

P: Practical applications: Hardiness Training E: Maddi and Kobasa developed hardiness training to increase self-confidence and sense of control so that individuals can deal more successfully with change. Maddi et al. (1998) found that hardiness training was more effective in increasing self-reported hardiness and job satisfaction, while decreasing self-reported strain and illness severity, compared to relaxation/meditation and a placebo/social support control. C: Hardiness training hasn’t just been used in the business world, but it has also been used in education and in the military. For example, elite military units, such as the US Navy Seals, now screen individuals for hardiness and use the concepts in their training, thus demonstrating its application outside of the business world.

Answer 43

Benzodiazepines (BZs) e.g. Valium, Librium, Xanax − BZs enhance the actions of a natural brain neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). GABA tells the neurons that it contacts to slow down or stop firing. − GABA reacts with receptors on postsynaptic neurons. − This opens a channel that allows negatively charged chloride ions to pass to the inside of the neuron. − These chloride ions make the neuron less responsive to other neurotransmitters that would normally excite it. − So, the individual starts to feel more relaxed and less anxious.

Answer 44

BZs are easy to take and cost effective.

Answer 45

P: Effectiveness: research has found that BZs are successful in dealing with anxiety. E: Kahn et al. (1986) followed approximately 250 patients over 8 weeks and found that BZs were significantly more effective when compared to a placebo. E: Davidson (1993) randomly assigned 75 patients diagnosed with social-anxiety disorder to either a BZ drug or placebo treatment for 10 weeks, and then conducted a two-year follow-up study – drug treatment was found to have an early sustained pos. effect, 75% of patients improved compared tp only 20% of the placebo patients. The 2 yr. follow up study found a sig. advantage in function among those treated with BZs than a placebo suggesting BZs are effective in the short + long term

Answer 46

P: Addiction: Patients taking even low doses of BZs show marked withdrawal symptoms when they stop taking them E: The recommended time limit for taking BZs is only four weeks

Answer 47

P: Side effects E: Unsteadiness + cognitive impairments especially impairment of LTM + lapse in concentration. Some patients even become aggressive +/or experience sexual dysfunction E: Lane argues against their use citing growing evidence that long term usage incurs brain damage especially the cerebral cortex resulting in STM damage C: This reduces the effectiveness of the treatment as patients experiencing side-effects may stop taking the drug before symptom reduction is achieved

Answer 48

Beta-blockers (BBs) − Beta-blockers work by reducing the activity of adrenaline and noradrenaline which is key in sympathetic arousal. − Adrenaline and noradrenaline are produced as part if sympathomedullary response to stress. − Beta-blockers such as inderal do not enter the brain but directly reduce activity in pathways of the sympathetic nervous system around the body. − Beta-blockers can be very effective against symptoms such as raised heart rate and blood pressure.

Answer 49

P: BBs have an immediate effect on the physical aspects of anxiety – they act directly on cells throughout the body, reducing heart rate and blood pressure immediately. E: Unlike other medications e.g. anti-depressants, which can take up to 4 weeks to reduce symptoms. Unlike BZs, they are not associated with dependency and addiction. C: They are therefore crucial in treating potentially fatal cases of stress-related hypertension

Answer 50

P: Effective – research has found that beta-blockers are successful in dealing with anxiety. E: Lau et al. (1992) performed a meta-analysis of studies assessing the effectiveness of BBs in treating stress. Found BBs effective in reducing high blood pressure. They were found to reduce risk of death by 20% in patients with heart disease suggesting that they are a live saver in some instances E: Beversdorf et al. (2005) stressed ppts by getting them to speak publically before an intimidating audience + then perform a maths task while being videoed. There were was control conditions of non-stress ppts who read aloud + counted numbers while sitting alone in a room. Ppts cognitive performance was measured by performance on word-association tasks + unscrambling anagrams. Ppts were tested either with or without being given BBs. Stress ppts performed worse than non-stress ppts for cognitive flexibility but stressed ppts with the BB performed as well as non-stressed ppts suggesting that BBs reduce the neg. effects of stress upon cognitive functioning

Answer 51

P: Side effects E: Cold extremities, tiredness, nightmares + hallucinations

Answer 52

Easy to use – Drug therapy does not require as much time and effort as other psychological stress management techniques e.g. stress inoculation therapy. They are cost effective and do not require a therapist to administer them.

Answer 53

Not a cure/long-term treatment for stress -> treats the symptoms, not the cause of stress – the medication only masks effects + once treatment ends symptoms return suggesting drug treatment are not a cure

Answer 54

− Meichenbaum (1985) proposed a form of cognitive-behavioural therapy to deal with stress. This involves changing the way that a person thinks (‘cognitive restructuring’) about stressors. Positive thinking leads to changes in attitudes and feelings (emotional responses), which reduces the stress response and leads to a change in behaviour in terms of being able to cope better in future situations. − Meichenbaum suggested that an individual should develop a form of coping before the problem arises; that is, you should inoculate yourself against the disease of stress in the same way that you receive inoculations against infectious diseases.

Answer 55

Phase 1 – conceptualisation − Client (with the therapist) attempts to understand their source(s) of stress. Identify effects of stress in behavioural, emotional, physical, and psychological areas. − What do stressful situations have in common. − Ascertain the specific effects of stress on individual performance and productivity. Phase 2 – skills acquisition (and rehearsal) − Develop & practice a variety of stress reduction skills. − Skills include - learning how to relax, reducing stress through deep breathing and muscle relaxation & developing a toolbox of positive coping thoughts. − Challenge faulty thinking. Phase 3 Application (and follow through) − Apply skills to specific stressful situations: Clients can imagine how to deal with stressful situations. − They can carry out a role play – acting out stressful situations. − Clients will need to go out into the real world and apply what has been learnt in therapy sessions. − Clients can plan, anticipate and prepare for potential and actual difficulties.

Answer 56

P: Effective – Meichenbaum (1996) claims that SIT has been shown to be successful with acute (e.g. public speaking) and chronic stressors (e.g. medical illness); and can inoculate against future stressful situations, unlike systematic desensitisation. E: This is supported by Meichenbaum (1977) compared the effectiveness of SIT against systematic desensitisation in the treatment of a snake phobia. It was found that both forms of therapy reduced the phobia, but that SIT was better because it helped clients deal with a second, non-treated phobia.This demonstrates how SIT can inoculate against future stressful situations as well as enabling the individual to cope with current problems. E: Other studies have also demonstrated the effectiveness of SIT in a variety of different situation. Holroyd et al. (1977) assigned 31 participants with chronic tension headaches to either an SIT group, a biofeedback group, or a no-treatment control group. Found that only the SIT group chowed substanitial imporvements in daily reductions of headaches suggesting that SIT is an effective treatment for chronic long term intermittent stressors + is superior to physiological treatment

Answer 57

P: Deals with the causes, not just the symptoms: both now and in the future. E: It is effective over long periods (as demonstrated by Halcomb’s research) and across different stressful situations. It gives patients the skills and confidence to cope with future problems – patients can continue to practise and apply skills they have learnt to any type of stressful situation they come up against. C: This contrasts with drug therapy, which only addresses current symptoms, rather than the underlying problem.

Answer 58

P: Time consuming and requires high motivation and commitment over long periods. E: Meichenbaum (2007) suggests that SIT can take much longer when dealing with clinical disorders – 8-15 sessions, plus follow-up sessions over as much as a year. Therefore, the time investment might not suit everyone. Also, some people do not like to discuss their feelings or work at changing the way they think. C: For these reasons, individuals might not complete the therapy, therefore reducing its effectiveness.

Answer 59

P: Unnecessarily complex E: The effectiveness of SIT might be due to certain components of the training, rather than all of it. It is hard to know whether the cognitive element is more important than the skills that are practiced in terms of addressing the negative effects of stress. C: It might be just as beneficial to learn to think/talk more positively and relax more – relaxation reduces activity in the sympathetic nervous system, so the person feels less stressed.

Answer 60

− Biofeedback is in part a biological treatment (because it involves paying attention to physical information from your body about heartbeat or blood pressure) and also in part psychological (because it involves conditioning: successful behaviour is rewarded and therefore continued). − Biofeedback deals with the physiological response to stress – arousal of the sympathetic nervous system (increased heart rate and blood pressure). Biofeedback is a method by which an individual learns to exert voluntary control over involuntary (autonomic) behaviours by being made aware of what is happening in the autonomic nervous system.

Answer 61

− Relaxation: The client is taught techniques of relaxation in order to reduce activity of the sympathetic nervous system and activating the parasympathetic nervous system. Adrenaline and noradrenaline should no longer be produced. The result should be reduced heart rate and blood pressure. − Feedback: → The client is attached to various machines which provide visual or auditory information (feedback) about various ANS activity e.g. heartbeat. For example, the client might be able to hear their heartbeat and a light might flash or buzzer beep to indicate any increases/decreases in blood pressure or muscle tension. → Machines used to feedback physiological information include: EMG (electromyograph) – responds to changes in muscle tension, Skin conductance response (SCR) – measures sweat activity, EEG (electroencephalograph) – measures electrical activity in the brain → The client is encouraged to practice relaxation while seeing/listening to the feedback, to activate a parasympathetic response. − Operant Conditioning: Relaxation leads to a target behaviour, for example heart rate is decreased or muscle tension is relaxed. This is rewarding, thus reinforcing the behaviour and increasing the likelihood of it being repeated. Such conditioning takes place without any conscious thought. − Transfer: The client then needs to transfer the skills learned to the real world i.e. using relaxation techniques in response to stressful situations.

Answer 62

Research support: Miller and Dicara (1967) E: Paralysed 24 rats, keeping the rats alive using artificial respiration. Half of the rats were rewarded whenever their heart rates slowed down, and the other half were rewarded when their heart rates speeded up. The reward was a ‘sense of pleasure’ – this was achieved by electrically stimulating a part of the brain known as the pleasure centre. The result was that the heart rates of the rats in the ‘fast’ group speeded up, and the heart rates of the rats in the ‘slow’ group slowed down. The learning was entirely involuntary as the rats were paralysed. Learning was the result of operant conditioning – behaviour stamped in because it was rewarded. C: However, this was animal-based research and humans might not be so easily conditioned. Furthermore, DiCara failed to replicate these findings in later studies and when asked to share his data, he claimed it had been lost – it is now believed that he made up the data!

Answer 63

P: Human-based research Bouchard et al. (2012) E: Found that a group of soldiers given one 30 min session of biofeedback per day for 3 days while playing a stressful video shooting game had lower stress levels when undergoing a live stimulated ambush where they had to apply first aid to a wounded soldier than a similar group of soldiers who received no biofeedback C: This suggests that biofeedback is effective in reducing stress + has practical applications in combat situations for military personnel

Answer 64

Effective – Biofeedback has been found to be successful in treating a wide range of behaviours (e.g. heart rate, blood pressure, skin temperature and brain waves) and disorders (e.g. migraine headaches, asthma and Raynaud’s disease). No negative side effects – Biofeedback does not alter the body in any permanent way as drugs do. It is not an invasive treatment.

Answer 65

However, the success of biofeedback may be more to do with relaxation (as it reduces sympathetic activity) than any unconscious operant conditioning. Or, it might be because it gives clients an increased sense of control. Expensive – The technique requires specialist equipment, which means that it is expensive and can only be undertaken with specialist supervision. Time-consuming – a course of Biofeedback can last more than a month, or considerably longer. Treats the symptoms, not the problem – Biofeedback does not ultimately treat the source of stress.

Answer 66

− Taylor et al. (2000) found gender differences in the way males and females respond to stress, with acute stress producing the ‘fight-or-flight’ response in men, but the ‘tend-and-befriend’ response in women, because females produce more oxytocin. − Tend-and-befriend response: Unlike males, who only experience the fight-or-flight response, women seem to have two response – a tend and befriend response and a fight or flight response - it is the tend-and-befriend response that helps women more. In stressful situations, women tend to their offspring to protect them and also find relief in the presence of a social group. − This is more adaptive for females because females invest more in each single reproduction than males. Therefore, female stress responses have evolved to maximise the survival of self and offspring − In females, oxytocin promotes: feelings of bonding with others and general social-ness. But in males testosterone levels can rise. Testosterone has a dampening effect on oxytocin. Males can become aggressive (due to testosterone).

Answer 67

Problem focused coping A way to cope with stress by tackling the factor(s) causing the stress, often in a practical way. Example: if you are not feeling well you might do some research on the internet to find out about why you are not feeling well.

Answer 68

Emotion focused coping A way to cope with stress by tackling the symptoms of stress, for example the anxiety that accompanies stress. Example: expressing emotions such as having a good cry.

Answer 69

− Matud assessed gender differences in stress + coping strategies in 2,816 ppl finding that women rated stressful life events as more negative + led controllable than men. This coupled with the fact that women had more family and health related stressors while men had mire financial + work related stressors effected coping styles. Women used mire emotional avoidance styles while men were more emotionally inhibited. This suggests women cope less well with stress because they use more negative emotional-focused strategies through men’s inability to express emotional could have long-term health impacts.

Answer 70

P: Females don’t always respond with tend-and-befriend E: Taylor et al. recognised that whilst males are generally more aggressive in response to stress compared to females, females are aggressive in situations requiring defence e.g. towards an intruder who threatens their offspring. Also, if the offspring are mobile, then they will flee as opposed to staying huddled together. E: Tamres et al assessed evidence form several studies to find that females use a wider selection of coping strategies + are more likely to seek social support to deal with stressors. Females were also more lielt to engage in neg. emotion-focused strategies which explains why they tended to precieve stressors as more severe than males did C: Therefore, ‘tend-and-befriend’ is too simple an explanation, because in reality there are a number of strategies employed by females that are adapted to their high levels of parental investment and the strategy used will depend on the type of threat posed.

Answer 71

P: Lack of research support for different coping strategies E: There is insufficient research to support the notion that men are more problem-focused and women are more emotion-focused when coping with stress. For example, Hamilton and Fagot (1988) assessed male and female undergraduates over an eight-week period and found no evidence of gender differences with regard to coping strategies. Other research suggests that there are more than two coping strategies. C: Ultimately, dividing the way that people cope with stress by gender is simplistic and may create self-fulfilling prophecies: where people react in the way they think that they ought to because of their gender. There are wide individual differences bet. people meaning that many males + females will not cope with stress in gender-stereotypical ways

Answer 72

P: Methodological issues: Use of self-report scales to assess gender differences in coping strategies E: Self-report measures are prone to bias. Furthermore, research that involves retrospective recall of events in the past is often unreliable as individuals struggle to recall events accurately and are often affected by their mood on the day when completing the scale. C: Women may be more willing to reveal the emotional side of coping while men may play down their emotional difficulties

Answer 73

P: Confounding variables: Coping is affected by a number of different factors… E: Coping varies with the type of stressor – Women are experiencing more stress at every stage of their lives than ever before. Juggling job pressures, family schedules, money issues, career and educational advancement. Further stressors include childcare and looking after elderly parents. Females are more likely than men to express their emotions openly so they are more likely to use emotion focused strategies to help them cope with stress and stressors.

Answer 74

− “The degree of assistance and resources available from others to help cope with stress” − The buffering hypothesis: The more social support individuals get, the better able they are to cope with stressful situations as the social support acts as a buffer against these stressors − Therefore, a lack of social support no only prevents an individual from dealing with stress, it can also lead to a sense of isolation and potentially mental illness such as depression − The amount and type of social support an individual receives depends on several factors, such as the social networks that a person has and their gender, with females generally having wider social support systems − It also depends on cultural background, with certain cultures (e.g. collectivist) having extended family networks that can provide this support to a high degree − Stroebe (2000) identified 5 types of social support (we will just be considering 3 though)

Answer 75

− This occurs when the individual perceives that others value them and hold them in high regard − This strengthens feelings of self-value, which is particularly helpful in dealing with stressful situations, as it helps individuals feel competent enough and therefore more confident they can cope

Answer 76

− This occurs when an individual perceives that others care for them, have sympathy for and an understanding of their situation and can be depended on to provide comfort

Answer 77

− This occurs when others provide practical assistance − This can be indirect, for example helping out so that an individual has more time and energy to deal with the stressor − It can also be direct, such as helping to deal with the stressor themselves (e.g. loaning money to help cope with financial stressors)

Answer 78

− Found that in a sample of 776 50 year old healthy Swedish men born in 1933, the most common factors in those going on to develop CHDs was smoking and lack of social support − This illustrates the importance of social support in counteracting the negative effects of stress − It was also found that only in men who lacked emotional support were the effects of stressful life events harmful, with such men five times more likely to die than those receiving emotional support

Answer 79

− Gender differences: → Research suggests that there are differences between males and females in the extent to which they benefit from social support → Lucknow et al. (1998) found that in 25/26 studies, women were more likely to use social support than men → However, these findings are dependent on the type of social support being investigated → Males are more likely to use instrumental social support (links to problem focused coping) → Whereas women are more likely to use emotional social support → The fact that most studies look at emotional support can explain why women appear to use social support more

Answer 80

− Cultural differences: → Research suggests that there are cultural variations in the types of social support that are used → Bailey and Dua (1999): → Compared Asian students (belonging to a collectivist culture) against Anglo-Australian (belonging to an individualist culture) students in their coping styles → They found that the Asian students tended to employ collectivist coping strategies (this means that the support they received and sought out was more implicit- the structure of their society meant it was there anyway) → The Anglo-Australian students tended to use more individualistic coping styles- this tends to be more explicit e.g. instrumental

Answer 81

− Social support is not always beneficial: → If the support is not perceived as being helpful then it’s unlikely to have a positive effect → Equally, some social support may make the situation worse, if the social support offered involves encouragement to cope with the situation using drink or drugs

Answer 82

− Methodological issues: → It’s difficult to isolate the different types of social support in research, therefore it’s hard to test them separately → This makes it difficult to assess which types are most influential in helping individuals cope with stress

Answer 83

− Relative importance of social support: → Kobasa et al. (1985) conducted a study on the effects of hardiness on stress- but also included assessments of social support and physical exercise in the study of 70 business executives → They found that social support was the least important factor in reducing stress levels, and hardiness the most important → Generally, people feel that social support is important in coping with stress, but Kobasa’s research suggests otherwise

Stress Flashcards

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