Stress

Question 1

General adaptation syndrome (GAS)

Answer 1

Stage 1: alarm reaction

• A threat/ stressor is recognised + a response is made
• The hypothalamus triggers the sympathetic nervous system which activates the adrenal medulla to screte adrenaline + nor-adrenaline
• The body is in a ‘fight or flight’ respnse

Stage 2: resistance

• If the stressor continues then it is necessary to find a way of coping with it
• The body is adapting to the demands of the environment but at the same time resources are gradually being depleted
• Levels of cortisol are increased in blood sugar
• While the body appears to be coping physiologically speaking things are deteriorating (e.g. immune system becoming less effective

Stage 3: Exhaustion

• Eventaully the bodys systems can no longer maintain normal functioning
• At this point the initial symptoms of the adrenal response may reappear (absent from stage 2) e.g. raised heart rate
• The adrenal glands may be damaged from previous overuse + the immune system may not be able to cope because the production of necessary protines has been slowed in favour of other needs
• The result of this may be seen in stress related illnesses e.g. ulcers, depression, cardiovascular problems + other mental + physical illnesses

Question 2

General adaptation syndrome (GAS) research

Answer 2

Selye:
− Selye’s model was based on his observations working with human patients – he noticed that they all shared a common set of symptoms, aches + pains, loss of appetite etc. no matter what was wrong with them
− He investigates this using rats
− He caused surgical injury, injected them with noxious substances, excessive exercise + temperature change
− He found that regardless of the stressor the response was the same – enlargement of the adrenal gland, shrinkage of the thymus, spleen + lymph glands + ulcers in the stomach + small intestine
− This suggests that there is one bodily response – supporting the GAS

Timio et al:
− Spent 20 yrs. comparing nuns (protected from everyday stresors) with working women (who were not)
− Found that the nuns blood pressure was unchanged while women working had heightened blood pressure
− This supports the notion that long term stress has negative effects on physical health – this is in line with the GAS

Question 3

Evaluation of the General adaptation syndrome (GAS): animal research

Answer 3

− Much of Selye’s initial research was conducted on rats who may not respond to stress in the same way as humans e.g. rats are more passive in their response where as humans often actively try to find ways to lessen the stressor, therefore the response may not be the same as humans meaning that there is difficulty in generalising the findings

Question 4

Evaluation of the General adaptation syndrome (GAS): Unethical

Answer 4

− Furthermore Selye’s research was highly unethical – many believed the stress inflicted on the rats was unacceptable, Selye thought this was justified as he hoped they would lead to therapeutic breakthroughs in treating stress related illnesses

Question 5

Evaluation of the General adaptation syndrome (GAS): Individual differences

Answer 5

− Selye failed to recognise individual differences in stress responses:
→ Mason showed that stressors all vary in the amount of stress hormones (adrenaline + cortisol) that they produce depending on the amount of fear/anger created, there are also gender differences in stress responses (e.g. tend/befriend in females) therefore it is unlikely we all go through the exact same stress response

Question 6

The sympathomedullary pathway (SAM axis)

Answer 6

• Immediate (acute) stressors arouse the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system
• The hypothalamus detects stress
• Activates the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system (ANS)
• Triggers the adrenal medulla
• Releases adrenaline + nor-adrenaline
  − Release of adrenaline results in quickening of heart rate + breathing, it also slows down digestion to conserve recourses for fight or flight
  − The parasympathetic branch of the ANS returns heart rate + blood pressure to normal as well as speeding up digestion causing the body to relax

Question 7

The hypothalamic pituitary-adrenal system (HPA axis)

Answer 7

• If stress continues (chronic) then the hypothalamic pituitary-adrenal system is increasingly activated
• The hypothalamus detects stress + releases corticoprophin releasing factor (CRF/CRH)
• The pituitary gland secretes adrenal-corticotropic hormone (ACTH)
• Travels to the adrenal context
• Releases corticosteriods (e.g. cortisol) into the blood stream
  − Cortisol maintains a steady supply of blood sugar for continued energy which enables the body to cope with the stressor
  − Cortisol release increases the ability to tolerate more pain BUT can impair cognitive ability + reduce immune system performance

Question 8

The role of cortisol

Answer 8

− Cortisol is secreted as a result of prolonged chronic stress in the HPA
− Cortisol permits a steady supply of blood sugar providing individuals with a constant supply of energy this allows the body to deal with stress
− Positive effects: individuals can tolerate more pain
− Negative impact:
→ Impaired cognitive ability
→ Cardiovascular system – dysfunctions of heart + blood vessels
→ Immune system – impaired ability to fight illness + disease
→ Weight – prolonged activation of the HPA system can lead to cushings syndrome which produces weight gain

Question 9

The role of cortisol research

Answer 9

− Ppts given levels of cortisol high enough to produce blood sugar levels similar to those of people experiencing major stress events (e.g. abdominal surgery) were poorer at recalling prose passages than ppts given levels of cortisol only high enough to produce a stress reaction similar to having minor surgery (e.g. having stiches out)
− Suggests the HPA system can have a negative impact on memory

Question 10

Evaluation of SAM + HPA: Scientific

Answer 10

P: Scientific
E: The biological explanation of stress allows accurate, objective measures to be made
E: People who have had their adrenal glands removed have to be given hormone supplements to help them cope with stressors highlighting the importance of the SMP, HPA system + stress hormones in responding to stress

Question 11

Evaluation of SAM + HPA: Gender differences

Answer 11

P: Taylor et al (2000) suggest that, for females, behavioural responses to stress are characterised by a pattern of tend and befriend rather than fight or flight.
E: This involves protecting themselves and their young through nurturing behaviours (tending) and forming protective alliances with other women (befriending). Women may have a completely different system for coping with stress because their responses evolved in the context of being the primary caregiver of their children. Fleeing too readily at any sign of danger would put a female’s offspring at risk.
E: Oxytocin is thought to inhibit fight-or-flight response in females + promote relaxation + nurturing behaviours
C: Therefore the standard description of the HPA + SAM systems are arguably gender-biased (towards the male stress response) + not applicable to females particularly as studies on human stress responses have mainly been conducted on males – researchers were concerned that fluctuations in hormone levels as a result of the menstrual cycle could act as a confounding variable leading to varied stress responses thus reducing the validity of the data

Question 12

Evaluation of SAM + HPA: Animal research

Answer 12

P: The use of animals in stress research – most of the research into the sympathomedullary pathway is animal-based.
E: The stress related behaviour of animals might not represent the stress related behaviour of humans. Humans are more likely to have a cognitive (thinking) element to their stress response e.g. to think about what is happening to them and consider options.

Question 13

Evaluation of SAM + HPA: The role of cognitive factors

Answer 13

P: The role of cognitive factors in stress responses

• Research suggests that cognitive appraisal of a situation is crucial in terms of how the individual responds and ultimately determines how the body responds i.e. the individual’s thoughts (cognitive) and their interpretation of the situation will determine whether there is a physiological response or not.
• Lazarus and Folkman (1984) developed the transactional model to explain the role of cognitive appraisal in stress responses, explaining how an individual’s assessment of the demands of the situation (‘perceived demands’) and their perceived ability to cope determine whether or not the sympathomeduallary pathway is activated.
• If there is a mismatch between the perceived demands and the individual’s perceived ability to cope, then the sympathomedullary pathway is more likely to be activated.
• Symington et al. (1955) found that conscious terminal cancer patients experienced more (chronic) stress than those in a coma as they indulged in a more stressful appraisal of their condition, therefore demonstrating the role of cognitions.

Question 14

The role of stress in illness - immunosuppression

Answer 14

− The immune system is our main defence against infection, seeking out and destroying foreign agents / antigens (bacteria, viruses, fungi)
− White blood cells are crucial to the functioning of the immune system + in the body’s fight against bacteria, virus + fungi
− Immunosuppression – weakening of the immune system making the body more prone to infection
− Corticosteroids (cortisol) produced as a result of chronic stress can shrink the thymus gland, preventing the growth of T cells (type of white blood cells)

Question 15

The role of stress in illness - immunosuppression research: Kiecolt-Glaser et al. (1984) – NK cell activity

Answer 15

− Procedure:
→ Natural experiment
→ Ppts. – 75 medical students (doing final exams)
→ Natural killer cell (NK cell) activity was assessed in two blood samples, on taken one months before their final exams (low stress) + during their exams (high stress)
→ Ppts. also completed a questionnaire about life events + loneliness
− Findings:
→ NK cell activity was sig. lower in the second blood sample taken during exams compared to one month previous
→ NK cell was lowest amongst those who reported high levels life events + loneliness
− Conclusion:
→ Exam stress results in immunosuppression making individuals more susceptible to illness + infection
→ Immune functioning is also affected by psychological variables e.g. life events + loneliness which may make individuals more vulnerable to short term stressors e.g. exams

Question 16

The role of stress in illness - immunosuppression research: Kiecolt-Glaser et al. (1995) – Wound healing in carers

Answer 16

− Procedure:
→ Ppts. – 13 women who cared for relatives suffering from senile dementia, a task associated with chronic stress + a matched control group of 13 women
→ All ppts. were given a ‘punch biopsy’
→ Ppts. were also assessed in terms of levels of cytokines (a substance that regulate the body’s immune system)
→ Ppts. also completed a stress scale
− Findings:
→ Wound healing took sig. longer in the carers than the control, it took an average of 9 days (24%) longer in the carers
→ Cytokine levels were found to be lower in the carers than the control
→ On the perceived stress scale the carers did actually indicate that they were feeling more stressed
− Conclusion: Chronic stress supresses immune system functioning

Question 17

Evaluation of immunosuppression (the role of stress in illness): Stress may improve immunes system functioning

Answer 17

− The effects of stress may sometimes enhance immune system functioning:
→ Evans et al. looked at the activity of one particular antibody sigA which helps protect against infection, the researchers arranged for students to give talks to other students (an acutely stressful activity) levels of sigA were measured before giving these talks + during the exam period which lasted for many weeks – found that levels of sigA in the students rose before giving the mildly stressful talk but decreased during the exam period
→ Findings were supported by Segerstrom + Miller who carried out a meta-analysis of almost 300 studies of stress + the immune system + found that short term stressors promoted the body’s ability to fight infection however the longer the stress persisted the more likely the immune system was to shift to potentially detrimental changes

Question 18

Evaluation of immunosuppression (the role of stress in illness): Difficult to establish a relationship

Answer 18

− It is difficult to establish a relationship between stress + illness (Lazarus) because:
→ Heath is affected by many different factors besides stress e.g. life style factors (diet, exercise, smoking, drinking, sleeping habits etc.)
→ Health is generally fairly stable + slow to change making it difficult to demonstrate that exposure to certain stressors cause a change in health
→ The long term study of stress would be expensive, time consuming + impractical

Question 19

Evaluation of immunosuppression (the role of stress in illness): Individual differences

Answer 19

− Individual difference – research has also suggested that there are age + gender difference in the effects of stress on the immune system:
→ Kiecolt-Glaser found that females show several hormonal immune system changes in response to marital conflict
→ Segerstrom + Miller found that as people age stress has greater effect on immune system functioning making it harder for the body to regulate itself
→ Oher research has also suggested that personality type can determine the impact that stress has on immune system functioning e.g. those with a type A personality are more likely to experience the negative effects of stress

Question 20

Evaluation of immunosuppression (the role of stress in illness): Correlational

Answer 20

Correlational

Question 21

The role of stress in illness - cardiovascular disorder

Answer 21

− As well as resulting in a supressed immune system prolonged stress can also result in cardiovascular disorder’s (CVD)
− CVD: hardened arteries, hypertension (high blood pressure) + coronary heart disease (CHD) – arteries supplying the heart with blood becomes clogged up with fatty materials
− Stress activates the sympathetic branch of the ANS resulting in secretion of adrenaline, having the effects on:
→ Heart rate – increased heart rate causes the heart to work harder + takes a toll over time
→ Blood pressure – constriction of the blood vessels increases blood pressure which puts tension on vessels causing them to ware away
→ Blood vessels – increased pressure can also dislodge plaques on the walls of blood vessels + this leads to blocked arteries (atherosclerosis) this may cause a heart attack or stroke
− Stress may also indirectly lead to cardiovascular disorders through altered life style factors as a result of chronic stress e.g. smoking, poor diet, alcohol consumption, sedentary lifestyle, lack of exercise

Question 22

The role of stress in illness - cardiovascular disorder research

Answer 22

− Aim: To investigate the relationship between anger + heart disease
− Procedure: Approx. 13,000 ppts. completed a 10 question anger scale which asked questions about levels of hot headedness, if they felt like hitting someone when angry, or whether they got annoyed when not given recognition for doing good work (none of the ppts. suffered from heart disease on the outset of the study) 6 yrs. later their health was assessed
− Findings:
→ 256/13,000 ppts. had experienced heart attacks
→ Those who had achieved the highest scores on the anger scale were over 2½ x more likely to have had a heart attack than those with the lowest angry ratings
→ Ppts. who achieved a ‘moderate’ score on the anger scale were 36% more likely to experience a coronary event than those with lower ratings
− Conclusion: This research suggests that sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activity is closely related to cardiovascular disorders

Question 23

Evaluation of cardiovascular disorder (the role of stress in illness): Correlational

Answer 23

− Most of the research into stress + cardiovascular disorders is correlational – it is likely to be the case that the direct effects of stress combine with indirect effects in terms of life style choices, Cohen + Williamson found that chronic stress resulted in increased smoking + alcohol consumption as well as decreased levels of exercise + sleep deprivation

Question 24

Evaluation of cardiovascular disorder (the role of stress in illness): individual differences

Answer 24

− Despite the apparent relationship bet. stress + cardiovascular disorders individual differences e.g. personality, age + gender have a part to play in terms of determining levels of vulnerability to developing CVDs through exposure to prolonged stress
→ E.g. research has found that the sympathetic branch of the ANS is more reactive in some individuals than others, these hypersensitive individuals therefore respond to stress with greater increases in blood pressure + heart rate leading to more damage to the cardiovascular system
→ Vaccarino exposed 49 female + male post heart attack patients to an acute stressor, found that females under 50 had twice the levels of myocardial ischaemia (when blood flow to your heart is reduced) than similar males – suggests that younger women are more at risk of CVDs through emotional stress

Question 25

Life changes (e.g. divorce, death of a loved one) as a source of stress

Answer 25

− Life changes are sig. events which require a lot of adjustment too someone’s life these events cause stress, e.g. marriage, child birth or a change of job
− On the basis of 5000 patient’s records Holmes + Rahe made a the social readjustment rating scale (SRRS) scale a list of 43 major life events that were perceived as potentially stressful because they needed considerable psychological adjustment/change
− In their list each event is allocated a point value to reflect the relative amount of change required called a life-change units (LCUs) – e.g. death of a spouse had the highest LCU of 100 whereas a minor violation of the law scored the lowest of 11 LCU points
− According to Holmes + Rahe an overall score of 300+ sig. increases one’s risk of illness

Question 26

Life changes as a source of stress research

Answer 26

− Procedure: 2500 male American sailors were given the SRRS to assess how many life events they’d experienced in the previous 6 months then over the following 6 months detailed records were kept of each sailors health status – life change scores were correlated with the sailors illness scores
− Findings:
→ There was a positive correlation of +0.118 bet. life change scores + illness scores
→ Although the pos correlation was small it did indicate that there was a meaningful relationship bet LCUs + health as all LCU scores increased so did the frequency of illness
− Conclusion:
→ As LCUs were positively correlated with illness scores experiencing life events increases the chances of stress related health breakdown
→ Since the correlation wasn’t perfect life events cannot be the only factor contributing to illness
− Eval:
→ Is a correlational study. It provides a possible relationship between high levels of stress and poor immune function. Because it is a correlational study, cause and effect relationship cannot be established.
→ As some participants were ‘harmed’ physically (catching a cold), there is an ethical issue to be considered.

Question 27

Evaluation of life changes as a source of stress: Further research support

Answer 27

P: Further research support: e.g. Cohen et al. (1993)
E: Gave nasal drops to ppts that contained the common cold virus + also assessed life changes using the Secedual of Recent Experiences. Ppts were quarantined to see if they developed a cold. Ppts with LCUs were more likely to get infected with the cold virus.
C: Supports the link between life changes and illness

Question 28

Evaluation of life changes as a source of stress: Methodological problems

Answer 28

P: Methodological problems: However, much of the research into life changes is correlational, and uses self-report measures and retrospective recall to assess levels of stress.
E: The use of self-report measures can lead to social desirability bias + difficulty in interpreting the different life events as some people may perceive an event ag what it means to have trouble with the in-laws, differently to someone else. The SRRS also relies on people’s memory of past events, retrospective memory which can result in forgotten memories and or memory distortion.
C: Decreases validity

Question 29

Evaluation of life changes as a source of stress: Flaws in the SSRS

Answer 29

P: Flaws in the SRRS as a measure of life changes: Dated, androcentric, failure to distinguish between positive and negative life changes, failure to take account of individual differences in experiences of life changes.
E: The SRRS is outdated. It was generated in 1967, therefore some of the items may not be relevant today, e.g. the price of mortgages. It is also androgenic + only applies to adults, e.g. items related to marriage, children etc. are targeted at an older generation where as young people have different stress, e.g. exams
E: Individual differences and the SRRS: for example some people dislike holidays and Christmas and these would be at the top of their list of stressors rather than at the bottom. Others might find marital separation a relief so this would be near the bottom of their list of stressors. Each of us could devise our own personal SRRS.
C: Not relevant for all individuals

Question 30

Evaluation of life changes as a source of stress: The role of daily hassles

Answer 30

P: The role of daily hassles: Other research suggests that daily hassles are a better predictor of well-being than life changes.
E: Kanner et al. (1981)

Question 31

Daily hassles (e.g. transport problems, too much homework) as a source of stress

Answer 31

− Daily hassles are relatively minor frustrations + annoyances of everyday life – their emotional effects are fairly short lived but if they accumulate over a period of time this could affect our well-being e.g. missing the train, forgetting homework, traffic jam etc.
− Measuring daily hassles: Kanner, Lazurus and colleagues devised the Hassles Scale (Kanner et al., 1981), a self-report measure. The original scale had 117 items. It was thought that positive events could offset the impact of daily hassles, thus an Uplifts Scale was introduced with 135 items e.g. relating well to friends, feeling healthy, getting enough sleep.

Question 32

Why are daily hassles so stressful - inc. accumulation effect + amplification effect

Answer 32

− The accumulation effect – there is an acclimation of minor daily stressors which creates persistent irritations which leads to finding other hassles more stressful + so on
− Although research has generally focused on the role of either life changes or daily hassles and suggested that daily hassles are a better predictor of well-being, it might be the case that the two factors influence one another, in that the effects of daily hassles depend on whether the individual is experiencing any life changes i.e. life changes may make individuals more vulnerable to daily hassles. This is referred to as the amplification effect – chronic stress cause by negative life changes can ‘wear people out’ making them more probe to stress from daily hassles
− Alternatively, it might be the case that daily hassles are a greater source of stress in terms of their impact on well-being because individuals receive less social and emotional support from others than for life events. - Research conducted by Flett et al. (1995) found that 320 students who read a scenario describing an individual who experienced either a life event or daily hassle rated those experiencing life events as needing + receiving more social support

Question 33

Daily hassles research

Answer 33

− Procedure:
→ 100 participants (48 men and 52 women) aged 45-67 completed the Hassles and Uplifts Scale (HSUP) for events over the previous month and continued to do this once a month for nine months.
→ Participants also completed a life events scale for the six months preceding the beginning of the study and also for the two-yearly periods prior to that. Finally they completed it again at the end of the study
→ Two measures were used to assess psychological well-being: the Hopkins Symptom Checklist, which assess symptoms such as anxiety and depression, and the Bradburn Morale Scale, which assesses positive and negative emotion. Participants filled these out each month.
− Findings:
→ Hassles: concerns about weight; health of a family; rising prices of common goods; home maintenance; too many things to do.
→ Uplifts: relating well with spouse/lover; relating well with friends; completing a task; feeling healthy; getting enough sleep.
→ Generally, the hassles and uplifts identified differed to those selected by a group of students. For example, they identified more problems related to having too much to do and not being able to relax.
→ There was a significant negative correlation between frequency of hassles and psychological well-being - therefore, participants with the fewest hassles showed the highest level of well-being.
→ Hassles were also a better predictor of illness than life events.
→ Overall, it was found that hassles were a better predictor of well-being than both life events and uplifts.
− Conclusion: This research suggests that there is a stronger relationship between daily hassles and both psychological and physical well-being than life events and well-being.

Question 34

Evaluation of daily hassles as a source of stress: Further research support

Answer 34

P: Further research support: e.g. Bouteyre et al. (2007); Sher (2004)
E: Correlated daily hassles against depressive symptoms amongst 233 first yr. psychology uni students. A positive correlation was found between scores on the hassles part of the HSUP scale + the incidence of depressive symptoms.
C: Findings suggest that the daily hassles experienced by students heading off to university are a sig. risk factor of depression, therefore showing the important of the effects of daily hassles on health and well-being.

Question 35

Evaluation of daily hassles as a source of stress: Methodological problems

Answer 35

P: Methodological problems: However, much of the research into daily hassles is correlational, uses self-report measures and retrospective recall to assess levels of stress.
E: Although correlational data can identify key links between daily hassles and well-being that would be unethical to study experimentally there are problems with relying on this type of research technique. it is difficult to establish a cause and effect relationship meaning that the results can’t be generalised. It also tends to be difficult to replicate a study to test its validity therefore reducing its replicability.
C: Reduced reliability of findings and makes it difficult to generalise findings to everyday life

Question 36

Evaluation of daily hassles as a source of stress: Individual differences

Answer 36

P: Individual differences: Research suggests that there are individual differences in what constitutes a ‘hassle’.
E: Miller et al. (1992) - Found that pets appear to sever different roles for female + male pet owners. For female’s pets were commonly associated with uplifts but for male’s pets were more likely to be associated with hassles
C: Difficult to generalise and shows that people have different daily hassles and that certain ‘daily hassles’ effect people differently, it is therefore not a universal theory

Question 37

Evaluation of daily hassles as a source of stress: Amplification effect

Answer 37

P: Amplification effect: However, life changes and daily hassles may influence each other.
E: Although research has generally focused on the role of either life changes or daily hassles + suggested that daily hassles are a better predictor of well-being. It may be the case that the two factors influence one another, in that the effects of daily hassles depend on whether the individual is experiencing any life changes i.e. life changes may make individuals more vulnerable to daily hassles.

Question 38

Workplace stress

Answer 38

− Workplace stressors are aspects if the working environment that we experience as stressful + which result in a stress reaction in the body often having a neg. impact on ones health + lifestyle practices e.g. heavy drinking + smoking as well as poor performance at work, decreased productivity, absenteeism + high staff turnover
− Physical environment – e.g. space, temperature, lighting, office arrangement can make work more difficult to complete
− Workload – often reported as one of the most stressful aspects of the workplace + long working hrs can have a sig. impact on family life
− Control – perceived lack of control increases the stress response + contributes to depression + stress related illnesses
− Role conflict/ambiguity – the requirements for a particular work role are unclear or poorly defined can contribute to other sources of workplace stress e.g. relationship with co-workers + lack of control

Question 39

Workplace stress research: Johansson et al (workshop)

Answer 39

− Procedure:
→ High risk group: 14 finishers – machine paced, isolated, repetitive, skilled, level of productivity determined wage rates for the factory
→ Low risk (control group): 10 cleaners – varied work, self-paces, sociable job
→ Levels of stress hormones (adrenaline + nor adrenaline) in urine samples were measured, samples were taken on work days + rest days
→ Stress related illness + absenteeism was reorder
− Findings:
→ High risk group of ‘finishers’ produce more stress hormones on work days then on rest days + higher levels than cleaners
→ High risk group had higher levels of stress related illness + greater absenteeism than cleaners
− Conclusion: Work stressors (e.g. responsibility, repetitiveness, machine paced) can lead to stress related illnesses

Question 40

Workplace stress research: Marmot et al (civil servants)

Answer 40

− Procedure:
→ This study followed over 10,000 UK civil servants (men and women) of different grades who have worked in Whitehall, London since 1985.
→ Some participants who work in higher grades (e.g. professional staff such as accountants), have high levels of workload and control, whereas those at lower grades (e.g. administrative staff) have less workload and control. Therefore, both grades are likely to experience stress, but for different reasons.
→ At the beginning of the study participants completed a range of different questionnaires assessing their job workload, subjective sense of job control and levels of social support.
→ 11 years later coronary heart disease (CHD) risk was assessed as a measure of the effects of stress.
− Findings:
→ Marmot et al. found that the highest grade workers had the highest workload and highest sense of job control.
→ High workload was not found to be associated with CHD (which challenges Johansson’s findings).
→ However, low job control amongst the lower grade workers was associated with CHD. Those employees with low job control were 3x more likely to have heart attacks than those with high job control.
→ The combined effect of low job control/high workload (referred to as the ‘job-strain model’) was strongest among the younger workers and was not reduced by high levels of social support.
− Conclusion:
→ Low job control can cause stress related illnesses e.g. CHD
→ Younger, less experienced workers are more vulnerable to work place stress

Question 41

Evaluation of workplace stress: Methodological problems

Answer 41

P: Methodological problems – Marmot’s research relied heavily on self-report questionnaires. Furthermore it is difficult to isolate + test specific workplace stressors
E: Questionnaires – social desirability bias, different perception + misinterpretation of what e.g. job control is (under or over exaggeration can occur)
E: It isn’t really possible to isolate + test single workplace stressors (e.g. control + workload) therefore it is difficult to highlight which workplace stressors are specifically related to stress related illness

Question 42

Evaluation of workplace stress: individual differences

Answer 42

P: Individual differences – Johansson + Marmot’s research failed to control for individual differences in terms of personality traits + perception of stress
E: Many of the research studies into the effects of workplace stressors fail to control for the role of personality e.g. type A personalities tend to be very competitive + strive towards goals however they are also easily ‘wound-up’ + tend to have high blood pressure

Question 43

Evaluation of workplace stress: Positive effects of the workplace

Answer 43

P: Positive effects of the workplace – however not all workplace stressors are harmful as some aspects of the workplace contribute to better physical + psychological well-being
E: The workplace presents opportunities to increase self-esteem, confidence, motivation, it gives people a sense of purpose + fulfilment
C: These all contribute to positive physical + psychological well-being

Question 44

Evaluation of workplace stress: Relevance to to today’s society

Answer 44

P: Relevance of such sources in today’s changing workplace – arguable the findings of Johansson + Marmot’s research into workload + control bear little relevance to the workplaces of today
E: More people are work from home e.g. modern technology means people can stay in touch with the office but work from home, they can therefore work around family commitments

Question 45

Physiological measures of stress: Skin conductance response

Answer 45

− As stress affects the body physically, it presents ways of objectively measuring stress:
→ Blood and urine samples to determine levels of stress hormones
→ Blood pressure
→ Speech analysis
→ Skin conductance response (or galvanic skin response)
− Immediate stress is related to sympathetic arousal of the autonomic nervous system, resulting in the production of adrenaline and noradrenaline, which cause a number of physiological responses e.g. increased heart and breathing rates, blood pressure and sweating.
− Skin is electrically active and the sweat created from the body’s response to stress increases the skin’s ability to conduct electricity, which is known as the skin conductance response. This effect is strongest in the hands and soles of the feet because of the high density of sweat glands at these points.
− Individuals have a higher skin conductance response (SCR) when stressed. SCR readings need to be taken in stressed and non-stressed states so that comparisons can be made.

Question 46

Physiological measures of stress: Skin conductance response - How is it used?

Answer 46

− Two electrodes are placed on a person’s index and middle finger. A very small voltage (0.5V) is applied across these electrodes. By measuring the current that flows, conductance can be reported.
− SCR readings are measured through use of a polygraph – the use of a polygraph involves an individual sitting quietly for around 30 mins so that a baseline score can be established to which readings are compares when the individual is stressed

Question 47

Physiological measures of stress: Skin conductance response - research

Answer 47

− Villarejo et al:
→ Used a computer operated stress sensor to measure stress levels in 16 adults who were required to complete a test involving different levels of stress for instance being relaxed, solving maths questions + exposure to anxiety-creating stimuli.
→ It was found that SCR readings were able to detect patients different stress levels with a successful rate of 76.5%, supporting the idea of SCR being capable though not perfect method of measuring stress levels
− Reynaud et al: Showed film exerts inc. ones to elicit fear to 15 neurotic + 18 high neurotic ppts + found that SCR readings were higher in neurotic ppts which suggests that SCR measurements have a useful role to play in displaying stress levels in different types of ppts

Question 48

Evaluation of Skin conductance response: Objective

Answer 48

Skin conductance response allows for stress to be measured in an objective way.

• Readings can be combined with recordings of heart rate, respiratory rate and blood pressure.
• They can also be used continuously throughout research and go relatively unnoticed by participants.
• They are easy to perform and relatively low cost

Question 49

Evaluation of Skin conductance response: actually measuring sympathetic arousal

Answer 49

P: However, what is actually being measured by SCR is sympathetic arousal, which occurs in response to any emotion. This is therefore a potential drawback of the measure.
E: If the ppt is experiencing fear, anger, surprise or sexual arousal they could all lead to increased sweat + increased conductance
C: So it may not be stress that had caused the activity of the sympathetic nervous system
E: Furthermore, SCR measurements are affected by external factors such as temperature and humidity, which could lead to inconsistent readings. It can also be affected by internal factors, such as medications and alcohol

Question 50

Evaluation of Skin conductance response: Physiological response can be affected by cognitive perception

Answer 50

P: Research also suggests that the physiological response can be affected by cognitive perception.
E: For example, changes in skin conductance have been observed depending on whether a person feels they have been treated fairly or not.
E: Interestingly, research by Oshumi and Ohira (2010) found that psychopaths are much less concerned by whether they were treated unfairly or not and a general lack of emotional responsiveness means that they can lie without any associated physiological response. In this instance, SCR measurements would reveal very little, if anything, about the individual’s stress levels and would not be a very dependable measure of deceitfulness

Question 51

Evaluation of Skin conductance response: Not reliable

Answer 51

P: Moreover, research suggests that SCR is not a reliable method for measuring stress levels.
E: Bakker et al (2011) showed that SCR readings vary not only from person to person but from one day to another for the same person
C: Again illustrating their lack of reliability in measuring stress levels

Question 52

Individual differences in stress: Type A

Answer 52

−	Time pressure:
→	Working against the clock
→	Doing several things at once
→	Irritation and impatience with others
→	Unhappy doing nothing
−	Excessive Competitiveness:
→	Always plays to win in games and at work
→	Achievement measured as material productivity
−	Anger + hostility: 
→	Self-critical
→	Easily irritated 
→	Hostile to the outside world
→	Anger often directed inwards 
−	Type A is linked to an increased risk of developing heart disease

Question 53

Individual differences in stress: Type B

Answer 53

− Contrasts with Type A personalities
− Tend to live life at a lower stress level
− Work more steadily
− Not as concerned with time constraints and deadlines
− Enjoy achievement but do not become overly stressed when they do not achieve
− Type B is linked to low levels of stress + therefore good health

Question 54

Individual differences in stress research

Answer 54

− Procedure:
→ Participants - 3200 Californian men aged 39-59
→ It was a longitudinal study and involved structured interviews to determine whether participants were Type A, X or B
→ 25 questions were asked about how they responded to everyday pressures, e.g. how would they cope with having to wait in a long queue.
→ The interview was conducted in a provocative manner to try to elicit Type A behaviour. For example, the interviewer might speak slowly and hesitantly so that a Type A person would want to interrupt and get the interview over.
− Findings:
→ After eight and a half years - 257/3200 had developed coronary heart disease by the end of the study
→ 70% of these men were from the Type A group.
→ Over 12%, who were Type A, had a heart attack DURING the study.
− Conclusion: Type A behaviour patterns increases vulnerability to heart disease
− Criticisms:
→ What were some of the key lifestyle variables that could have increased the participants’ vulnerability to heart disease, that weren’t controlled for?
→ Diet, smoking, weight gain, lack of exercise may have occurred during the period of the study and some of these things may have had a negative effect on health.
→ Gender Bias in the study – because the study only focused on men it is not possible to generalise the finding to females.
→ Lack of cause and effect – this was not an experiment so cause and effect can’t be assumed. The study is correlational and there are other possible variables linked to CHD

Question 55

Evaluation of Individual differences in stress: follow up research :(

Answer 55

P: A strong correlation between Type A behaviour and cardiovascular disorders was found by Friedman and Rosenman (1974).
E: Ragland + Brand found that 15% of Friedman + Rosenmans original sample had died of CHD with age, high blood pressure + smoking proving to be sig. factors but little evidence of type A personality being a risk factor.
C: This suggests that the original conclusions are unsupported

Question 56

Evaluation of Individual differences in stress: Type A is too broad a description

Answer 56

P: Arguably, the Type A personality is too broad a description.
E: Matthew + Haynes found that CHD was most associated with the hostility trait of type A men especially those expressing high levels of hostility supporting R + R’s findings + identifying the key trait related to CHD.
E: Forshaw supported these findings that the type A characteristic of hostility was the best single predictor of CHD + a better predictor than type A personality as a whole.
C: This suggests that it is the specific trait of hostility rather than type A personality that increases the risk of developing stress-related illness though it doesn’t mean that hostility causes CHD

Question 57

Evaluation of Individual differences in stress: Other factors

Answer 57

P: Other factors, like perceptions of control, could moderate stress outcomes amongst Type A individuals
E: Chesney + Rosenhan found that control was an important factor that interacted with personality type to determine response to stressors – type A managers experiences greater anxiety when they were not in control while other managers experiences greater anxiety when they were in control
C: The issue of perception of control in moderating stress outcome may be worthy of further research

Question 58

Individual differences in stress: Type C

Answer 58

− Type C individuals are introverted, sensitive, thoughtful + inclined towards perfectionism, taking everything seriously + working very hard
− They are conformist + thorough in everything they do + exceedingly dependable
− However because they tend not to express their emotions are unassertive + try to please others even when it upsets themselves, they are easily stressed + prone to developing certain cancer, depression + illnesses associated with immunosuppression

Question 59

Type C research

Answer 59

− Procedure:
→ Over a period of two years, women attending a cancer clinic in London were asked to participate in a study.
→ In total, 75 women were interviewed and asked about how often they expressed affection, unhappiness by crying or losing control when angry in order to assess typical patterns of emotional behaviour.
→ The interviewer was not aware of the initial diagnosis of cancer.
− Findings: Those women whose breast lumps were found to be cancerous were also found to have reported that they both experienced an expressed far less anger (Type C) than those women whose lumps were found to be non-cancerous.
− Conclusions: This research supports a link between cancer and the suppression of anger.
− Evaluation:
→ Unethical
→ Temoshok (1987) found that Type C personalities were cancer prone, with such individuals having difficulty expressing emotion and suppressing or inhibiting emotions, especially negative ones like anger.
→ This was backed up by Weinman (1995) who found it likely that such personality characteristics influenced the progression of cancer and the patient’s survival time
→ Practical issues – prevent + slow the growth of cancerous cells

Question 60

Individual differences in stress: Hardiness

Answer 60

− Defined by Kobasa
− Helps to explain why some people are more resistant to stress than others
− Includes three personality factors that defend the individual against the negative effects of stress
− Control: Having the belief that you can influence what happens in your life, rather than attributing control to outside influences
− Commitment: A sense of purpose and involvement in the world around you, the world is seen as something to engage with rather than to be apart from. Committed people tend to resist giving up in times of stress
− Challenge: Life changes are seen as challenges to overcome, or as opportunities rather than threats and stressors

Question 61

Hardiness research

Answer 61

− Procedure:
→ About 800 middle- and upper-level executives (all male) from a large utility company in the US were contacted and asked to identify the life events they had experienced in the previous three years (using a slightly adapted version of the SRRS). They were also asked to list any illness episodes they had experienced in this time.
→ Kobasa then identified those who were either high stress/low illness (86 participants in this group) or high stress/high illness (75 participants in this group).
→ Three months later, the final participants were asked to complete several personality tests, which included assessments of control, commitment and challenge.
− Findings:
→ Individuals in the high stress/low illness group scored high on all three characteristics of the hardy personality.
→ The high stress/low illness group scored lower on those variables.
− Conclusions: This research suggests that highly stressed individuals do not experience illness because they have a hardy personality.

Question 62

Hardiness research eval

Answer 62

− Evaluation:
→ Gender bias: Kobasa’s research only involved males (who were all wealthy managers!). More recent research suggests that there are gender differences in arousal levels associated with hardiness. – Wiebe (1991) gave a stressful evaluation task to participants categorised as either low or high in hardiness. Those high in hardiness saw the task as less threatening and responded to it more positively. Males high in hardiness displayed less physiological arousal than males of low hardiness, though no differences in physiological arousal were noted in female participants. Though supporting claims for hardiness being related to lower experience of stress, the findings suggest some gender differences in arousal levels associated with hardiness.
→ Further research support – Sarafino found that people who undertook hardiness training developed lower blood pressure and felt less stressed, suggesting hardiness reduces the negative effects of stress and can be taught to people as a stress management technique.

Question 63

Evaluation of Hardiness (individual differences in stress): self report

Answer 63

P: Most of the research support for the link between hardiness and health has relied upon data obtained through self-report questionnaires.
E: Ppts may not respond truthfully either because they cannot remember or because they which to present themselves in a socially acceptable manner.
C: Social desirability bias can be a problem as ppts often answer in a way to portray themselves in a good light

Question 64

Evaluation of Hardiness (individual differences in stress): The concept of negative activity

Answer 64

P: Some researchers have argued that the characteristics of the hardy personality can be more simply explained by the concept of negative affectivity (NA).
E: Research has found that negative affectivity and hardiness correlate well - high-NA individuals are more likely to report dissatisfaction, dwell more on their failures and focus more on the negative aspects of themselves and the world.
C: Therefore, ‘hardy individuals’ may be low on NA. This was supported by Funk (1992), who argued that low hardiness is the same as being negative and it is this that leads to the negative effects of stress.

Question 65

Evaluation of Hardiness (individual differences in stress): 3 elements not equally important

Answer 65

P: Is hardiness a personality type? Research suggests that all three elements of hardiness are not equally important.
E: Research by Rotter (1966) found that individuals with a high internal locus of control feel stress less.
E: Cohen et al. (1993) found that participants who felt their lives were predictable and uncontrollable were twice as likely to develop colds as those who felt in control.
C: This research therefore suggests that control is the key factor.

Question 66

Evaluation of Hardiness (individual differences in stress): Practical applications - hardiness training

Answer 66

P: Practical applications: Hardiness Training
E: Maddi and Kobasa developed hardiness training to increase self-confidence and sense of control so that individuals can deal more successfully with change. Maddi et al. (1998) found that hardiness training was more effective in increasing self-reported hardiness and job satisfaction, while decreasing self-reported strain and illness severity, compared to relaxation/meditation and a placebo/social support control.
C: Hardiness training hasn’t just been used in the business world, but it has also been used in education and in the military. For example, elite military units, such as the US Navy Seals, now screen individuals for hardiness and use the concepts in their training, thus demonstrating its application outside of the business world.

Question 67

Drug therapy BZs

Answer 67

Benzodiazepines (BZs) e.g. Valium, Librium, Xanax
− BZs enhance the actions of a natural brain neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). GABA tells the neurons that it contacts to slow down or stop firing.
− GABA reacts with receptors on postsynaptic neurons.
− This opens a channel that allows negatively charged chloride ions to pass to the inside of the neuron.
− These chloride ions make the neuron less responsive to other neurotransmitters that would normally excite it.
− So, the individual starts to feel more relaxed and less anxious.

Question 68

Evaluation of BZs: Cost effective

Answer 68

BZs are easy to take and cost effective.

Question 69

Evaluation of BZs: Effective

Answer 69

P: Effectiveness: research has found that BZs are successful in dealing with anxiety.
E: Kahn et al. (1986) followed approximately 250 patients over 8 weeks and found that BZs were significantly more effective when compared to a placebo.
E: Davidson (1993) randomly assigned 75 patients diagnosed with social-anxiety disorder to either a BZ drug or placebo treatment for 10 weeks, and then conducted a two-year follow-up study – drug treatment was found to have an early sustained pos. effect, 75% of patients improved compared tp only 20% of the placebo patients. The 2 yr. follow up study found a sig. advantage in function among those treated with BZs than a placebo suggesting BZs are effective in the short + long term

Question 70

Evaluation of BZs: Addiction

Answer 70

P: Addiction: Patients taking even low doses of BZs show marked withdrawal symptoms when they stop taking them
E: The recommended time limit for taking BZs is only four weeks

Question 71

Evaluation of BZs: Side effects

Answer 71

P: Side effects
E: Unsteadiness + cognitive impairments especially impairment of LTM + lapse in concentration. Some patients even become aggressive +/or experience sexual dysfunction
E: Lane argues against their use citing growing evidence that long term usage incurs brain damage especially the cerebral cortex resulting in STM damage
C: This reduces the effectiveness of the treatment as patients experiencing side-effects may stop taking the drug before symptom reduction is achieved

Question 72

Drug therapy BBs

Answer 72

Beta-blockers (BBs)
− Beta-blockers work by reducing the activity of adrenaline and noradrenaline which is key in sympathetic arousal.
− Adrenaline and noradrenaline are produced as part if sympathomedullary response to stress.
− Beta-blockers such as inderal do not enter the brain but directly reduce activity in pathways of the sympathetic nervous system around the body.
− Beta-blockers can be very effective against symptoms such as raised heart rate and blood pressure.

Question 73

Evaluation of BBs: Immediate effect

Answer 73

P: BBs have an immediate effect on the physical aspects of anxiety – they act directly on cells throughout the body, reducing heart rate and blood pressure immediately.
E: Unlike other medications e.g. anti-depressants, which can take up to 4 weeks to reduce symptoms. Unlike BZs, they are not associated with dependency and addiction.
C: They are therefore crucial in treating potentially fatal cases of stress-related hypertension

Question 74

Evaluation of BBs: Effective

Answer 74

P: Effective – research has found that beta-blockers are successful in dealing with anxiety.
E: Lau et al. (1992) performed a meta-analysis of studies assessing the effectiveness of BBs in treating stress. Found BBs effective in reducing high blood pressure. They were found to reduce risk of death by 20% in patients with heart disease suggesting that they are a live saver in some instances
E: Beversdorf et al. (2005) stressed ppts by getting them to speak publically before an intimidating audience + then perform a maths task while being videoed. There were was control conditions of non-stress ppts who read aloud + counted numbers while sitting alone in a room. Ppts cognitive performance was measured by performance on word-association tasks + unscrambling anagrams. Ppts were tested either with or without being given BBs. Stress ppts performed worse than non-stress ppts for cognitive flexibility but stressed ppts with the BB performed as well as non-stressed ppts suggesting that BBs reduce the neg. effects of stress upon cognitive functioning

Question 75

Evaluation of BBs: Side effects

Answer 75

P: Side effects
E: Cold extremities, tiredness, nightmares + hallucinations

Question 76

Evaluation of drug therapy: Easy to use

Answer 76

Easy to use – Drug therapy does not require as much time and effort as other psychological stress management techniques e.g. stress inoculation therapy. They are cost effective and do not require a therapist to administer them.

Question 77

Evaluation of drug therapy: Not a cure

Answer 77

Not a cure/long-term treatment for stress -> treats the symptoms, not the cause of stress – the medication only masks effects + once treatment ends symptoms return suggesting drug treatment are not a cure

Question 78

Stress inoculation training

Answer 78

− Meichenbaum (1985) proposed a form of cognitive-behavioural therapy to deal with stress. This involves changing the way that a person thinks (‘cognitive restructuring’) about stressors. Positive thinking leads to changes in attitudes and feelings (emotional responses), which reduces the stress response and leads to a change in behaviour in terms of being able to cope better in future situations.
− Meichenbaum suggested that an individual should develop a form of coping before the problem arises; that is, you should inoculate yourself against the disease of stress in the same way that you receive inoculations against infectious diseases.

Question 79

Phases of stress inoculation

Answer 79

Phase 1 – conceptualisation
− Client (with the therapist) attempts to understand their source(s) of stress. Identify effects of stress in behavioural, emotional, physical, and psychological areas.
− What do stressful situations have in common.
− Ascertain the specific effects of stress on individual performance and productivity.

Phase 2 – skills acquisition (and rehearsal)
− Develop & practice a variety of stress reduction skills.
− Skills include - learning how to relax, reducing stress through deep breathing and muscle relaxation & developing a toolbox of positive coping thoughts.
− Challenge faulty thinking.

Phase 3 Application (and follow through)
− Apply skills to specific stressful situations: Clients can imagine how to deal with stressful situations.
− They can carry out a role play – acting out stressful situations.
− Clients will need to go out into the real world and apply what has been learnt in therapy sessions.
− Clients can plan, anticipate and prepare for potential and actual difficulties.

Question 80

Evaluation of stress inoculation training: Effective

Answer 80

P: Effective – Meichenbaum (1996) claims that SIT has been shown to be successful with acute (e.g. public speaking) and chronic stressors (e.g. medical illness); and can inoculate against future stressful situations, unlike systematic desensitisation.
E: This is supported by Meichenbaum (1977) compared the effectiveness of SIT against systematic desensitisation in the treatment of a snake phobia. It was found that both forms of therapy reduced the phobia, but that SIT was better because it helped clients deal with a second, non-treated phobia.This demonstrates how SIT can inoculate against future stressful situations as well as enabling the individual to cope with current problems.
E: Other studies have also demonstrated the effectiveness of SIT in a variety of different situation. Holroyd et al. (1977) assigned 31 participants with chronic tension headaches to either an SIT group, a biofeedback group, or a no-treatment control group. Found that only the SIT group chowed substanitial imporvements in daily reductions of headaches suggesting that SIT is an effective treatment for chronic long term intermittent stressors + is superior to physiological treatment

Question 81

Evaluation of stress inoculation training: Deals with the causes

Answer 81

P: Deals with the causes, not just the symptoms: both now and in the future.
E: It is effective over long periods (as demonstrated by Halcomb’s research) and across different stressful situations. It gives patients the skills and confidence to cope with future problems – patients can continue to practise and apply skills they have learnt to any type of stressful situation they come up against.
C: This contrasts with drug therapy, which only addresses current symptoms, rather than the underlying problem.

Question 82

Evaluation of stress inoculation training: Time consuming + needs motivation

Answer 82

P: Time consuming and requires high motivation and commitment over long periods.
E: Meichenbaum (2007) suggests that SIT can take much longer when dealing with clinical disorders – 8-15 sessions, plus follow-up sessions over as much as a year. Therefore, the time investment might not suit everyone. Also, some people do not like to discuss their feelings or work at changing the way they think.
C: For these reasons, individuals might not complete the therapy, therefore reducing its effectiveness.

Question 83

Evaluation of stress inoculation training: Complex

Answer 83

P: Unnecessarily complex
E: The effectiveness of SIT might be due to certain components of the training, rather than all of it. It is hard to know whether the cognitive element is more important than the skills that are practiced in terms of addressing the negative effects of stress.
C: It might be just as beneficial to learn to think/talk more positively and relax more – relaxation reduces activity in the sympathetic nervous system, so the person feels less stressed.

Question 84

Biofeedback

Answer 84

− Biofeedback is in part a biological treatment (because it involves paying attention to physical information from your body about heartbeat or blood pressure) and also in part psychological (because it involves conditioning: successful behaviour is rewarded and therefore continued).
− Biofeedback deals with the physiological response to stress – arousal of the sympathetic nervous system (increased heart rate and blood pressure). Biofeedback is a method by which an individual learns to exert voluntary control over involuntary (autonomic) behaviours by being made aware of what is happening in the autonomic nervous system.

Question 85

Four processes of biofeedback

Answer 85

− Relaxation: The client is taught techniques of relaxation in order to reduce activity of the sympathetic nervous system and activating the parasympathetic nervous system. Adrenaline and noradrenaline should no longer be produced. The result should be reduced heart rate and blood pressure.

− Feedback:
→ The client is attached to various machines which provide visual or auditory information (feedback) about various ANS activity e.g. heartbeat. For example, the client might be able to hear their heartbeat and a light might flash or buzzer beep to indicate any increases/decreases in blood pressure or muscle tension.
→ Machines used to feedback physiological information include: EMG (electromyograph) – responds to changes in muscle tension, Skin conductance response (SCR) – measures sweat activity, EEG (electroencephalograph) – measures electrical activity in the brain
→ The client is encouraged to practice relaxation while seeing/listening to the feedback, to activate a parasympathetic response.

− Operant Conditioning: Relaxation leads to a target behaviour, for example heart rate is decreased or muscle tension is relaxed. This is rewarding, thus reinforcing the behaviour and increasing the likelihood of it being repeated. Such conditioning takes place without any conscious thought.

− Transfer: The client then needs to transfer the skills learned to the real world i.e. using relaxation techniques in response to stressful situations.

Question 86

Evaluation of biofeedback: Animal based research

Answer 86

Research support: Miller and Dicara (1967)
E: Paralysed 24 rats, keeping the rats alive using artificial respiration. Half of the rats were rewarded whenever their heart rates slowed down, and the other half were rewarded when their heart rates speeded up. The reward was a ‘sense of pleasure’ – this was achieved by electrically stimulating a part of the brain known as the pleasure centre. The result was that the heart rates of the rats in the ‘fast’ group speeded up, and the heart rates of the rats in the ‘slow’ group slowed down. The learning was entirely involuntary as the rats were paralysed. Learning was the result of operant conditioning – behaviour stamped in because it was rewarded.
C: However, this was animal-based research and humans might not be so easily conditioned. Furthermore, DiCara failed to replicate these findings in later studies and when asked to share his data, he claimed it had been lost – it is now believed that he made up the data!

Question 87

Evaluation of biofeedback: Human based research

Answer 87

P: Human-based research Bouchard et al. (2012)
E: Found that a group of soldiers given one 30 min session of biofeedback per day for 3 days while playing a stressful video shooting game had lower stress levels when undergoing a live stimulated ambush where they had to apply first aid to a wounded soldier than a similar group of soldiers who received no biofeedback
C: This suggests that biofeedback is effective in reducing stress + has practical applications in combat situations for military personnel

Question 88

Evaluation of biofeedback: Strengths

Answer 88

Effective – Biofeedback has been found to be successful in treating a wide range of behaviours (e.g. heart rate, blood pressure, skin temperature and brain waves) and disorders (e.g. migraine headaches, asthma and Raynaud’s disease).

No negative side effects – Biofeedback does not alter the body in any permanent way as drugs do. It is not an invasive treatment.

Question 89

Evaluation of biofeedback: Weaknesses

Answer 89

However, the success of biofeedback may be more to do with relaxation (as it reduces sympathetic activity) than any unconscious operant conditioning. Or, it might be because it gives clients an increased sense of control.

Expensive – The technique requires specialist equipment, which means that it is expensive and can only be undertaken with specialist supervision.

Time-consuming – a course of Biofeedback can last more than a month, or considerably longer.

Treats the symptoms, not the problem – Biofeedback does not ultimately treat the source of stress.

Question 90

Gender differences to stress (tend-and-befriend model)

Answer 90

− Taylor et al. (2000) found gender differences in the way males and females respond to stress, with acute stress producing the ‘fight-or-flight’ response in men, but the ‘tend-and-befriend’ response in women, because females produce more oxytocin.
− Tend-and-befriend response: Unlike males, who only experience the fight-or-flight response, women seem to have two response – a tend and befriend response and a fight or flight response - it is the tend-and-befriend response that helps women more. In stressful situations, women tend to their offspring to protect them and also find relief in the presence of a social group.
− This is more adaptive for females because females invest more in each single reproduction than males. Therefore, female stress responses have evolved to maximise the survival of self and offspring
− In females, oxytocin promotes: feelings of bonding with others and general social-ness. But in males testosterone levels can rise. Testosterone has a dampening effect on oxytocin. Males can become aggressive (due to testosterone).

Question 91

Gender differences to stress: Male coping style

Answer 91

Problem focused coping

A way to cope with stress by tackling the factor(s) causing the stress, often in a practical way.
Example: if you are not feeling well you might do some research on the internet to find out about why you are not feeling well.

Question 92

Gender differences to stress: Female coping style

Answer 92

Emotion focused coping

A way to cope with stress by tackling the symptoms of stress, for example the anxiety that accompanies stress.
Example: expressing emotions such as having a good cry.

Question 93

Gender differences to stress research

Answer 93

− Matud assessed gender differences in stress + coping strategies in 2,816 ppl finding that women rated stressful life events as more negative + led controllable than men. This coupled with the fact that women had more family and health related stressors while men had mire financial + work related stressors effected coping styles. Women used mire emotional avoidance styles while men were more emotionally inhibited. This suggests women cope less well with stress because they use more negative emotional-focused strategies through men’s inability to express emotional could have long-term health impacts.

Question 94

Evaluation of gender differences to stress: Females don’t always respond withe tend-and-befriend

Answer 94

P: Females don’t always respond with tend-and-befriend
E: Taylor et al. recognised that whilst males are generally more aggressive in response to stress compared to females, females are aggressive in situations requiring defence e.g. towards an intruder who threatens their offspring. Also, if the offspring are mobile, then they will flee as opposed to staying huddled together.
E: Tamres et al assessed evidence form several studies to find that females use a wider selection of coping strategies + are more likely to seek social support to deal with stressors. Females were also more lielt to engage in neg. emotion-focused strategies which explains why they tended to precieve stressors as more severe than males did
C: Therefore, ‘tend-and-befriend’ is too simple an explanation, because in reality there are a number of strategies employed by females that are adapted to their high levels of parental investment and the strategy used will depend on the type of threat posed.

Question 95

Evaluation of gender differences to stress: Lack of research

Answer 95

P: Lack of research support for different coping strategies
E: There is insufficient research to support the notion that men are more problem-focused and women are more emotion-focused when coping with stress. For example, Hamilton and Fagot (1988) assessed male and female undergraduates over an eight-week period and found no evidence of gender differences with regard to coping strategies. Other research suggests that there are more than two coping strategies.
C: Ultimately, dividing the way that people cope with stress by gender is simplistic and may create self-fulfilling prophecies: where people react in the way they think that they ought to because of their gender. There are wide individual differences bet. people meaning that many males + females will not cope with stress in gender-stereotypical ways

Question 96

Evaluation of gender differences to stress: Methodological issues

Answer 96

P: Methodological issues: Use of self-report scales to assess gender differences in coping strategies
E: Self-report measures are prone to bias. Furthermore, research that involves retrospective recall of events in the past is often unreliable as individuals struggle to recall events accurately and are often affected by their mood on the day when completing the scale.
C: Women may be more willing to reveal the emotional side of coping while men may play down their emotional difficulties

Question 97

Evaluation of gender differences to stress: Confounding variables

Answer 97

P: Confounding variables: Coping is affected by a number of different factors…
E: Coping varies with the type of stressor – Women are experiencing more stress at every stage of their lives than ever before. Juggling job pressures, family schedules, money issues, career and educational advancement. Further stressors include childcare and looking after elderly parents. Females are more likely than men to express their emotions openly so they are more likely to use emotion focused strategies to help them cope with stress and stressors.

Question 98

The role of social support in coping with stress

Answer 98

− “The degree of assistance and resources available from others to help cope with stress”
− The buffering hypothesis: The more social support individuals get, the better able they are to cope with stressful situations as the social support acts as a buffer against these stressors
− Therefore, a lack of social support no only prevents an individual from dealing with stress, it can also lead to a sense of isolation and potentially mental illness such as depression
− The amount and type of social support an individual receives depends on several factors, such as the social networks that a person has and their gender, with females generally having wider social support systems
− It also depends on cultural background, with certain cultures (e.g. collectivist) having extended family networks that can provide this support to a high degree
− Stroebe (2000) identified 5 types of social support (we will just be considering 3 though)

Question 99

The role of social support in coping with stress - esteem support

Answer 99

− This occurs when the individual perceives that others value them and hold them in high regard
− This strengthens feelings of self-value, which is particularly helpful in dealing with stressful situations, as it helps individuals feel competent enough and therefore more confident they can cope

Question 100

The role of social support in coping with stress - emotional support

Answer 100

− This occurs when an individual perceives that others care for them, have sympathy for and an understanding of their situation and can be depended on to provide comfort

Question 101

The role of social support in coping with stress - instrumental support

Answer 101

− This occurs when others provide practical assistance
− This can be indirect, for example helping out so that an individual has more time and energy to deal with the stressor
− It can also be direct, such as helping to deal with the stressor themselves (e.g. loaning money to help cope with financial stressors)

Question 102

research in the role of social support in coping with stress

Answer 102

− Found that in a sample of 776 50 year old healthy Swedish men born in 1933, the most common factors in those going on to develop CHDs was smoking and lack of social support
− This illustrates the importance of social support in counteracting the negative effects of stress
− It was also found that only in men who lacked emotional support were the effects of stressful life events harmful, with such men five times more likely to die than those receiving emotional support

Question 103

Evaluation for the role of social support in coping with stress: Gender differences

Answer 103

− Gender differences:
→ Research suggests that there are differences between males and females in the extent to which they benefit from social support
→ Lucknow et al. (1998) found that in 25/26 studies, women were more likely to use social support than men
→ However, these findings are dependent on the type of social support being investigated
→ Males are more likely to use instrumental social support (links to problem focused coping)
→ Whereas women are more likely to use emotional social support
→ The fact that most studies look at emotional support can explain why women appear to use social support more

Question 104

Evaluation for the role of social support in coping with stress: Cultural differences

Answer 104

− Cultural differences:
→ Research suggests that there are cultural variations in the types of social support that are used
→ Bailey and Dua (1999):
→ Compared Asian students (belonging to a collectivist culture) against Anglo-Australian (belonging to an individualist culture) students in their coping styles
→ They found that the Asian students tended to employ collectivist coping strategies (this means that the support they received and sought out was more implicit- the structure of their society meant it was there anyway)
→ The Anglo-Australian students tended to use more individualistic coping styles- this tends to be more explicit e.g. instrumental

Question 105

Evaluation for the role of social support in coping with stress: Not always beneficial

Answer 105

− Social support is not always beneficial:
→ If the support is not perceived as being helpful then it’s unlikely to have a positive effect
→ Equally, some social support may make the situation worse, if the social support offered involves encouragement to cope with the situation using drink or drugs

Question 106

Evaluation for the role of social support in coping with stress: Methodological issues

Answer 106

− Methodological issues:
→ It’s difficult to isolate the different types of social support in research, therefore it’s hard to test them separately
→ This makes it difficult to assess which types are most influential in helping individuals cope with stress

Question 107

Evaluation for the role of social support in coping with stress: Importance of social support

Answer 107

− Relative importance of social support:
→ Kobasa et al. (1985) conducted a study on the effects of hardiness on stress- but also included assessments of social support and physical exercise in the study of 70 business executives
→ They found that social support was the least important factor in reducing stress levels, and hardiness the most important
→ Generally, people feel that social support is important in coping with stress, but Kobasa’s research suggests otherwise