Stuart historiography

Question 1

Coward and Gaunt - Whig position

Answer 1

Thought that the constitution and religious position of their own age were the culmination of a long and inexorable fight for liberties traceable long before 1642

Question 2

Coward and Gaunt - Marxist position

Answer 2

Shared Whig belief in the inevitability of the historical process, but cited the civil war was caused by socio-economic changes and the rising middle class

Question 3

Coward and Gaunt - work of the 1950s and 60s

Answer 3

Found little evidence for sweeping images of socio-economic or class-based rise and decline

Question 4

Coward and Gaunt - ‘revisionists’ of the 1970s and 80s

Answer 4

Suggested there were no long-term divisions in the Elizabethan or early Stuart state

Saw the causes as the mistakes made after 1625

Question 5

Coward and Gaunt - continent-wide problem

Answer 5

Suggestion due to the unusual concentration of rebellions and wars in Europe at this time

However, proponents of the ‘general crisis of Europe’ disagree on the fundamental cause; soceo-economic crisis due to demographic expansion during climatic downturn, or politico-military crisis due to centralisation attempts

Question 6

Coward and Gaunt - British problem theory

Answer 6

Mishandling by Charles of Scotland and Ireland and the outbreaks of violence that resulted

Question 7

Coward and Gaunt - geographical divisions in England and Wales

Answer 7

Scholarship has uncovered a far more detailed mosaic of divided allegiances than royalism in north/west and parliamentarianism in south/east

Question 8

Coward and Gaunt - disarray of historiography

Answer 8

No single interpretation is currently dominant

Even historians who have doubts about the revisionist line continue to stress the failings of Charles

Question 9

Coward and Gaunt - their own line of argument

Answer 9

Long-term causes greatly influenced the dramatic course of events after 1640 in terms of the different constitutional and religious attitudes and aspirations that emerged early C17

Question 10

Coward and Gaunt - initial parliamentary unity

Answer 10

In November 1640, differences in attitude and aspirations were not yet apparent

Growth of electorate led to differing members in parliament

Dominant, unifying optimism prevailed both in and outside parliament, with many millenarian aspirations voiced

Question 11

Coward and Gaunt - initial aims of MPs

Answer 11

Get rid of the men and measures that had caused offence in the 1630s

Laud, Strafford and Ship Money judges - all were vocal in denouncing them

Question 12

Coward and Gaunt - where division in MPs arose

Answer 12

While MPs were happy to dismantle the worst features of Caroline government, divisions emerged when it came to replacing it

Question 13

Coward and Gaunt - radical nature of MPs

Answer 13

Difficult to underestimate

Aristocrats (earls of Bedford and Essex, Lord Saye and Sele) worked with Pym, St John, Hampden, Holles

Question 14

Coward and Gaunt - John Pym

Answer 14

Gained 1620s rep as fierce opponent of Laudians, leading role trying to impeach Buckingham

Also treasurer of the Providence Island Company

Question 15

Coward and Gaunt - driving ideology of most parliamentary leaders

Answer 15

Constitutional parliamentarianism - amalgam of a desire to safeguard liberties and burning zeal for a godly reformation

Also motivated by needs to address pressing practical problems e.g. Scots money

Question 16

Coward and Gaunt - Strafford and aftermath

Answer 16

Arrested first week due to ‘thorough’ and royal army command - Bill of Attainder only asserted guilt

After execution in May 1641, most opponents were dead, imprisoned or in exile

Next step was abuses themselves

Question 17

Coward and Gaunt - parliamentary legislation against abuses

Answer 17

Support was unanimous, and comprehensiveness and speed of reform (after slow start) show hatred of financial expedients and prerogative courts

Also attack on Royal prerogative, attacking undisputed right to call and dismiss parliaments

Question 18

Coward and Gaunt - problem of ensuring redresses would be permanent

Answer 18

MPs not prepared to commit to radical and effective solution to this problem until Nov 1641

Bedford groups had detailed programme of financial reforms to manipulate crown with

Question 19

Coward and Gaunt - height of parliamentary unity

Answer 19

During removal of abuses, all groups were united, with key royalists supporting 1641 legislation

Pym and Junto able to steer business and committees

Also encouraged mass demonstrations in favour of parliaments (apprentices for Bill of Attainder)

Army Plot expertly revealed by Pym for full political effect, led to Protestaion Oath

Charles’ opponents were reacting to and interacting with pressure of outside opinion

Question 20

Coward and Gaunt - disagreement over Strafford Trial

Answer 20

Many had qualms with its justification as an act of necessity rather than law

Baron Digby first Royalist convert

Question 21

Coward and Gaunt - parliamentary disagreement over religion

Answer 21

Over what should replace Laudianism, as some hoped for ‘godly reformation’ and were anti-episcopacy

Root and Branch petition led to many different plans and pro-bishop petitions

Serious political and social implications for the de facto collapse of ecclesiastical hierarchy, also non-religious riots in Lincolnshire, etc.

Commons could only agree to set up assembly of the divines, postponing clash

Question 22

Coward and Gaunt - Charles by 1641 and Scotland trip

Answer 22

Must have thought religious disagreement showed end of crisis, however no practical accommodation possible

June - announced plan to travel to Scotland to ratify treaty (hoping to appeal to potential royalists)

Great fear of Charles mobilising Scottish army led to committee of defence

Question 23

Coward and Gaunt - Ten Propositions

Answer 23

June 1641 - demanded postponement of visit and removal of ‘evil councilors’

Also suggested parliament should control officers of state and military officers

Obnoxious does for any C17 monarch

Question 24

Coward and Gaunt - early months of second Long Parliament session

Answer 24

Saw increased polarisation of opinion

Question 25

Coward and Gaunt - Irish rebellion - causes

Answer 25

Fall of Strafford ended New and Old English coalition ; the latter worried about the former (Sir William Parsons) negotiating with parliament to repress Catholicism Also Charles met with Old English earls of Ormonde and Antrim - many felt they were rebelling in defence of Charles

Question 26

Coward and Gaunt - course of Irish rebellion

Answer 26

Hard to tell due to many inflammatory accounts However it was clear that fear of popery was a latent force, buried beneath day-to-day business

Question 27

Coward and Gaunt - effect of Irish rebellion

Answer 27

Destroyed Charles' credibility, fear he would use army he proposed to raise against the Irish to attack parliament Forced radical steps, crating the ideological as well as the functional nature of 1641 crisis November Bill for King to only use councillors chosen by parliament in raising army

Question 28

Coward and Gaunt - Grand Remonstrance and effect

Answer 28

Great polarisation, as moderates objected to its direct appeal to the public more than its content When Charles returned from Scotland he had more supporters than before Able to pose convincingly as the defender of the 'fundamental laws' against revolutionaries

Question 29

Coward and Gaunt - wrong timing of Charles coup

Answer 29

Thought it was justified by growing support in Westminster and county petitions Wrong timing due to new unity of Lords and Commons - Five Members incident awful

Question 30

Coward and Gaunt - aftermath of 5 members

Answer 30

Commons committee declared it a major violation of privilege and city trained bands activated Charles retreated to HC and 5 members triumphantly returned the next day Strengthened parliamentary reform, passing Exclusion Bill and controlling militia, forts and tower

Question 31

Coward and Gaunt - increase in petitions by 1642

Answer 31

Jan and Feb saw petitions supporting parliament, showing public support Often presentations of the petitions caused mass demonstration - one on 11th Jan accompanied by 4-5,000 people (made Lords collapse to Exclusion Bill)

Question 32

Coward and Gaunt - string of documents in later 1642

Answer 32

From both sides, physically drawing apart and outlining positions and arguments, intended to attract more supporters Militia Ordinance worried many gentlemen, as did legislating without him 19 Propositions' severity showed no intention of concluding a settlement (acceptance of all privy councillors and major offices, education of children, reform of the church)

Question 33

Coward and Gaunt - summary of the divisions

Answer 33

Radical parliamentarians had feared that if they did not push on, Charles would reverse 1641 concessions and possibly charge them with treason However, some claims (e.g. choosing advisors, controlling army) were more to be feared for many MPs than the King

Question 34

Holmes - failure to fight Scots

Answer 34

Not pursuing prepared military option disadvantaged Charles - negotiations soon broke down in the face of mutual intransigence

Question 35

Holmes - failure of structure of early-modern English government

Answer 35

The centralised creation and direction of policy was combined with localised enforcement, entailing a problem with the centre ensuring conformity from local officers Had to pursue a double strategy of punishment and persuasion, which were difficult to accomplish effectively

Question 36

Holmes - deficiencies of government by 1640

Answer 36

Council had received a series of bleak reports concerning the enforcement of its policies from all areas of England

Question 37

Holmes - religious views as anarchy

Answer 37

For MPs like Hyde and Dering, the religious ideals of their colleagues were equivalent to anarchy - the fear of them drove them to the king

Question 38

Holmes - status at raising of King's standard

Answer 38

Only attended by 800 cavalry and few infantry, but there were indications he enjoyed considerable sympathy in the country at large Also, the policies of Pym were being seriously questioned

Question 39

Holmes - presentation of Charles in the paper war

Answer 39

A paragon of constitutional propriety Hyde and his friends combined this image with a sardonic denunciation of the radical novelties in government practice and constitutional theory propagated by Pym and his cronies

Question 40

Holmes - spring 1642 upheaval

Answer 40

Major rioting in the Fens, and Colchester Royalists argued that the demotic language of parliament was promoting anarchy

Question 41

Holmes - who became Royalists?

Answer 41

In the elite - those who worried about religious and social breakdown or motivated by 'the punctilio of honour' Main soldiers were drawn from volunteers offered cash and comradeship, but also roused by iconoclastic and aggressive actions of parliamentary supporters

Question 42

Holmes - recruitment for royalism

Answer 42

At all social levels it was rooted in the fear of subversive militant puritanism Efforts to recruit were far more successful in the winter than September, after the country had experienced the zeal of Essex's army

Question 43

Zagorin - English religion compared to other wars at the time

Answer 43

Exceed all others in magnitude of political change, destruction of the state church and significance of its ideological debates

Question 44

Zagorin - nature of the English national state

Answer 44

Cohesive and better unified and integrated than any in Western Europe Crown did not have to reckon with a still only partially subdued nobility Reflected in increasing political sophistication of the dominant class - acquainted with public affairs and shared a general national horizon, giving them a more impersonal loyalty to the state

Question 45

Zagorin - opposition in parliament

Answer 45

Not only vocal, but organised and tended to grow stronger Explains why the crown ran into such problems and both James and Charles had to imprison leading members for their conduct Clear that Commons sought to expand its influence, infringing on crown prerogative

Question 46

Zagorin - increase in resistance of parliament

Answer 46

Had never been a revolutionary body prior to 1640, however it then showed itself to be far more refractory to royal control than its predecessors Could be due to double number of seats contested as in 1620s, also wider turnout as qualifications eroded by inflation MPs began to show greater allegiance to their constituents and the liberty of the kingdom than the crown

Question 47

Zagorin - growth of the revolution origin

Answer 47

The resistance to absolutism in a breakdown of government and regime - division between Court and Country Political system based on reciprocal patronage and service with nobility Nobility broke down under Charles, as the Court came so signal corrupt interest and Country signified patriotism and public spirit

Question 48

Zagorin - 'Country' taking shape

Answer 48

As an opposition to the crown - a fluid, diffuse, shifting group of alliances Like a party in nucleus of activists and allies in Lords

Question 49

Zagorin - revolutionary situation by the end of personal rule

Answer 49

Under the surface of personal rule, discontents festered - gradually welded into a common animosity agains the government By 1640 there was a revolutionary situation, as national politics affected elections more heavily than ever before, and the crown was limited in its ability to influence the elections

Question 50

Morrill - no civil war before 1642

Answer 50

Because there was no royalist party - what is surprising is loyalty to a King who had disregarded the rights of his subjects and supported a Church which persecuted an old nonconformity while championing another

Question 51

Morrill - importance of provincialism

Answer 51

Meant that national political and constitutional issues took on local colours and were articulated within local contexts

Question 52

Morrill - caveats to the use of Court and Country

Answer 52

Most accounts focus on the country, ignoring the coherent, if irresponsible, program of 1630s Court reform Also assume that the terms are synonymous with the 'ins' and 'outs' - many transcended these barriers

Question 53

Morrill - Charles' exclusion

Answer 53

Elizabeth had made sure no groups were excluded from the Court, however Charles excluded many, and groups were forming around prominent Lords Unlike Elizabethan factions, they could only make themselves heard through confrontation

Question 54

Morrill - limits of the term 'country'

Answer 54

No more than a small number of frustrated courtiers Good for explaining the political crisis of 1640, however it had split by the summer of 1641 No pattern between those peers considered Court and Country and civil war allegiances

Question 55

Morrill - provincial gentry misunderstanding

Answer 55

So formidable and united in their opposition to crown because they did not understand the innovative royal policies Responded to the effects of royal policies rather than their origins or purpose

Question 56

Morrill - ship money

Answer 56

Fall in payment was not due to constitutional issues, but due to a growing fear of social and economic instability, the breaking point being Charles requesting coat and conduct money

Question 57

Morrill - choosing sides

Answer 57

Most ruling groups were united by the apparent collapse of order, with many rejecting both sides' arguments and unaware of the gravity of the dispute Many driven to neutralism which became a great force Most forced to choose sides bu the arrival of commissions from each side - many moderates simply obeyed whoever commissioned them first

Question 58

Morrill - impact of religion

Answer 58

Royalists were defenders of the episcopacy, parliamentarians determined to introduce a godly reformation Charles had excluded important currents of thought from court, divided the Church over doctrine and posed a threat to gentry control over the Church Rise of Arminianism forced the moderates into the arms of the radicals

Question 59

Morrill - rough pattern of allegiance

Answer 59

South and east Puritan minorities were strong enough to seize power in north and Wales the great territorial magnates chose the king

Question 60

Hughes - other struggles between European rulers and their people

Answer 60

French monarchy collapsed late 1640s with much resistance in Frondes rising Spanish revolts in Catalonia, Portugal, Naples Sicily Tensions in Sweden and United Provinces

Question 61

Hughes - 30 Years War

Answer 61

Began with rebellion of Protestants in Bohemia against Austrian Habsburg rule in 1618 1621 - merged to include struggle between Spain and Netherlands 1635 - France entered the war against Spain, renewing attempts to avoid encirclement Most of Europe embroiled in these vast and complex wars where religious ideology was mixed with power politics

Question 62

Hughes - rising cost of war

Answer 62

Brought Spain and France to the brink of collapse 'Military revolution' produced tensions between rulers and ruled, as costs increased hugely

Question 63

Hughes - English crown weakness

Answer 63

In a condition of 'functional breakdown' (Russell) Civil war in many ways was a reaction against Charles attempting to fix the systemic weaknesses of the English crown

Question 64

Adamson - obsession with medieval precedent

Answer 64

Had been around over a decade - trial by combat reintroduced 1631, war without parliament in 1640

Question 65

Adamson - essay's aim

Answer 65

Understand how contemporary fascination with precedent influenced politics, addressing 2 Qs: How did medieval precedent preoccupation affect terms in which aristocratic leadership defined their conduct and comprehended their experience? How did the solution to 'evil counsels' affect nobility's choice of political options?

Question 66

Adamson - seeing conflict as a baronial war

Answer 66

Popular outlook, not just of parliamentarian nobility King set up his standard against the 'late rebellion of the Earl of Essex' Essex was the leader and personification of the parliamentarian cause Brought with it an aristocratic reaction agains the over-mighty subject, and a profound change in the nobility's attitude to its military tradition

Question 67

Adamson - role of history

Answer 67

Seen as the tutor of politics, and at the time works recounting the C14 and C15 baronial crises were popular Books like 'the civill warres of England' published in relation to the 'commonwealth party' Unsurprising, since they had the most to gain from advocating a return of the great medieval offices of state, taking a baronial view of the nobility as the counterpoise to the king

Question 68

Adamson - Nineteen Propositions

Answer 68

Steeped in and informed by a heightened awareness of the medieval past, most striking evident in provision for re-establishment of 'great officers of the kingdom' Baronial council would replace privy chamber, Lord High Steward and High Constable Essex had powers of the high constable, so war seemed like a baron's war when he marched out in 1642

Question 69

Adamson - clash over control of arsenals and military strength

Answer 69

Not just a clash of the two sides - influenced by a series of localised aristocratic struggles for regional control 1/3 of nobility led armies in the field - their battles dominated published accounts of the war

Question 70

Adamson - parallels with earlier baronial conflict

Answer 70

Emphasised by rhetoric on both sides - 'evil counsellors' and the 'rebellion of the earl of Essex' Perception had its correlative in the chivalric code by which fighting was engaged - trial by battle and personal combat e.g. earl of Newcastle challenging Lord Fairfax Part of a political and chivalric culture in which the challenger identified himself with virtuous culture, and within the nobility's 'just rights' Offers of trial by battle were not eccentric anachronisms, but part of political culture

Question 71

Adamson - importance of Essex

Answer 71

Set an influential precedent for Cromwell - entry to the city after Edgehill modelled on Charles' royal entry the previous year Removal from command with the self-denying ordinance set a precedent for the decline of military influence of the nobility

Question 72

Kishlansky - two alleged fundamental deficiencies of Charles

Answer 72

Rigid inability to compromise and transparent dishonesty (Hill) Due to deep personal insecurity, he regarded all who opposed him as personal enemies Uncompromising, authoritarian attitudes mixed with a deep streak of mendacity

Question 73

Kishlansky - basic Charles argument

Answer 73

Failed in all his primary responsibilities, but also a victim of circumstance Was not an internal exile, but very widely travelled and accessible Also dealt well with the Scots

Question 74

Kishlansky - early modern monarchs not compromising

Answer 74

Kings expected obedience from their subjects - strong reaction to disobedience should not be surprising Charles had been taught to see his subjects as children

Question 75

Kishlansky - Charles' flexibility

Answer 75

Seen through allowing vocal critics like Sir Dudley Digges into government, treaties with France and Spain, willingness to compromise in impeachment of Buckingham and Petition of Right

Question 76

Kishlansky - Charles absentee monarch question?

Answer 76

Charles made many public appearance (6 months out of London in 1625) Suggests a pattern of visibility and travel continued throughout Charles' reign

Question 77

Kishlansky - Charles and the Scots

Answer 77

Scots' fault - postponed his 1628 and 1630 trips Prayer Book developed in consultation with Scottish bishops and clergymen, also sent to Scottish Privy Council Charles tried to ameliorate the situation, and withdrew the book within 2 weeks

Question 78

Holmes - accessible ruler

Answer 78

Asserts Charles was never an accessible ruler - regular hunting peregrinations did not include any outside the charméd circle Great progresses of 1634 and 1636 were not received well, led to uneasy reflections on the role of the king

Question 79

Holmes - Charles with access and dialogue

Answer 79

Ignorant of the rules - used Earl of Newcastle as a broker between the crown and his region, however treated him merely as an errand boy

Question 80

Holmes - Charles with the legal system

Answer 80

Greatly interfered with judges, tried to bend the legal rules around royal prerogative to the detriment of his subjects' rights

Question 81

Holmes - Charles and administration

Answer 81

Showed a blinkered obtuseness - ignored the ideal of consensual government, imposing great burdens on local officers Annual tax collected by them soon broke down

Question 82

Goodare - opinion of the Revocation

Answer 82

A 'legal bludgeon' which tried to buy teinds compulsory then sell them back Seen as predatory, upsetting many Scots

Question 83

Goodare - prayer book

Answer 83

Neither was it popular nor introduced with consent of the General Assembly (as Kishlansky claims) Mainly English book, Scottish General Assembly had no authority over the book, and it was sent to very few people Charles should have made more concessions to the Scots based on the accurate intelligence he got in throughout 1638

Question 84

Goodare - use and failure of Kishlanky

Answer 84

Opens up the prospect of a reappraisal of comparisons between Charles and James, since James clearly left many long-term problems to his successor However, Charles was clearly inflexible and bent on war - he had a losing hand, bu he might have played it with skill

Question 85

Cust - critics in Charles' government

Answer 85

Entered it on Charles' terms, not their own - they had to sign up to an ideological programme not to criticise the crown

Question 86

Cust - Charles as malleable

Answer 86

Not at all - most parliamentary wishes were forced on him by his need for their supply It was his grudging tone and ungracious style that suggested an unwillingness to compromise

Question 87

Cust - Charles as deceitful

Answer 87

Displayed contradictory patterns of behaviour and conveyed false impressions - his closest councillors trusted him less By his own admission he saw trust as a flexible commodity His behaviour convinced a lot of experienced and responsible politicians that he was not to be trusted

Question 88

Stoyle - Englishness and allegiance

Answer 88

Nationalism was not a product of the modern age Patterns of allegiance with parliament were strongest in the south and east, where the idea of Englishness was most clearly defined

Question 89

Stoyle - Wales

Answer 89

Most Welsh lived in isolated communities and resented the English As accusations levelled against them in the capital grew ever more defamatory, so the inhabitants of the principality aligned themselves more closely with the king

Question 90

Stoyle - Cornwall

Answer 90

Had a unique cultural heritage, which was treated with disdain by the English Cornwall held clearly for the king

Question 91

Como - disruption of parliamentarians

Answer 91

Soon the relatively conservative rhetoric of loyalty to the king and godly reformation gave way to all manner of religious and political fragmentation Accompanied in some circles by parallel processes of radicalisation , allowing the constitutional upheaval that eventually occurred

Question 92

Como - press licensing at beginning of the Long Parliament

Answer 92

Traditional system of licensing effectively crumbled, opening space for a somewhat unregulated market of print Understandable due to retreat and abolition of High Commission and Star Chamber

Question 93

Como - position of king vs parliament on press

Answer 93

King and council in defensive position - had to watch as obnoxious, unlicensed publications attacking courtiers and the church spilled out London's presses Prevailing sentiment in Parliament was sympathetic to much of the complaint literature, satire and news

Question 94

Como - when political situation became more contentious

Answer 94

Both the king and parliament made attempts to work with stationers to stem the tide of unlicensed pamphlets Clear that there were dangerous consequences for both sides it continued unchecked

Question 95

Skinner - assertion of loss of liberty

Answer 95

Critics of the crown spoke about a loss of liberty Contention was that the existence of royal prerogatives condemned the whole nation to bondage and servitude

Question 96

Skinner - Roman thinking

Answer 96

Roman thinking about liberty Distinction between freedom and slavery at the forefront of the minds of parliamentary leaders

Question 97

Morrill - three distinct perceptions of misgovernment at parliament

Answer 97

The localist, the legal-constitutionalist, and the religious One man could hold two or three of them, but many did not do so

Question 98

Morrill - lack of impetus behind localist and constitutionalist

Answer 98

Localist and legal-constitutionalist lacked the momentum, the passion, to bring about the kind of civil war England experienced

Question 99

Morrill - Localist view

Answer 99

Gave men widespread feeling of need to return to older forms of self-determination

Question 100

Morrill - legal-constitutionalist view

Answer 100

Restorative and conservative, and reform was sluggish (in contrast to religion) Ultimate goal was to preserve the essence of the ancient and established political order

Question 101

Morrill - religious view

Answer 101

Religion drove minorities to fight, and forced majorities to make reluctant choices Attack on evil councillors was immediate, and religious issues were inflammatory Almost impossible to overestimate the damage cause by Laudians

Question 102

Walter - subject of the study

Answer 102

Richard Drake, Fellow of Pembroke Hall, who was appointed to the Essex living of Radwinter in 1638 He was a Laudian ceremonialist of advanced views and practices which he tried to introduce uncompromisingly Kept a record of 'Affronts and Insolencies' in the early 1640s

Question 103

Walter - initial incidents

Answer 103

August 1641 - churchwarden Richard Durden refused to provide bread and wine for Holy Communion repeatedly, as well as locking away the surplice and hood Also locked church on the feast of St Matthew

Question 104

Walter - height of opposition

Answer 104

January 1643 - Drake threatened with cudgel, thrown to floor, kicked and stamped before being dragged out the church

Question 105

Walter - main reason for opposition

Answer 105

Ceremonialism and its theological implications Hated kneeling in the middle alley before the litany, turning back on congregation when reciting litany and creed, bowing 'superstitiously' to communion table Also repaved and raised chancel, decorated a screen with images

Question 106

Walter - use of the account

Answer 106

Lack of reference to support for him suggests widespread opposition in parish Drake was certainly selective in his records, and all complaints come alongside a rebuttal from him However, the microcosm of Drake's pastoral experiences allows us to see how iconoclasm in the early 1640s was neither random nor spontaneous, but the visible tip of a denser pattern of everyday conflict