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Higher Biology > sustainability and interdependence > Flashcards

sustainability and interdependence Flashcards

1
Q

What is food security?

A

Food security is the ability of human populations to access food of sufficient quality and quantity.

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2
Q

What does increase in human population and concern for food lead to?

A

Increase in human population and concern for food security leads to demand for increased food production.

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3
Q

What must food production be?

A

Food production must be sustainable and not degrade the natural resources on which agriculture depends.

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4
Q

What does agricultural production depend on?

A

Agricultural production depends on factors that control photosynthesis and plant growth.

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5
Q

What factors does increased food production depend on? What are these 5 things?

A

Increased food production will depend on factors that control plant growth - breeding for higher yielding cultivars, use of fertiliser, protecting crops from pests, diseases and competition.

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6
Q

What is all food production dependent upon?

A

All food production is dependent ultimately upon photosynthesis.

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7
Q

Name 4 examples of plant crops?

A

Plant crop examples include cereals, potato, roots and legumes.

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8
Q

What 4 things do breeders seek to develop crops with?

A

Breeders seek to develop crops with higher nutritional values, resistance to pests and diseases, physical characteristics suited to rearing and harvesting as well as those that can thrive in particular environmental conditions.

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9
Q

What do livestock produce less of than crop and plants? What is this due to?

A

Livestock produce less food per unit area than crop plants due to loss of energy between trophic levels.

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10
Q

What is livestock production often possible in?

A

Livestock production is often possible in habitats unsuitable for growing crops.

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11
Q

What is light energy absorbed by? What does this generate?

A

Light energy is absorbed by photosynthetic pigments to generate ATP and for photolysis.

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12
Q

What happens to the light energy not absorbed?

A

Light energy not absorbed is transmitted or reflected.

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13
Q

Absorption spectra of what?

A

Absorption spectra of chlorophyll a and b and carotenoids compared to action spectra for photosynthesis.

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14
Q

What do Carotenoids do?

A

Carotenoids extend the range of wavelengths absorbed and pass the energy to chlorophyll for photosynthesis.

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15
Q

What does each pigment do?

A

Each pigment absorbs a different range of wavelengths of light.

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16
Q

What does absorbed light energy do?

A

Absorbed light energy excites electrons in the pigment molecule.

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17
Q

What does transfer of these electrons through the electron transport chain do?

A

Transfer of these electrons through the electron transport chain releases energy to generate ATP by ATP synthase.

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18
Q

What happens during photolysis?

A

Energy is also used for photolysis, in which water is split into oxygen, which is evolved, and hydrogen, which is transferred to the coenzyme NADP.

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19
Q

What happens in the carbon fixation stage?

A

In the carbon fixation stage (Calvin cycle), the enzyme RuBisCO fixes carbon dioxide by attaching it to ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP).

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20
Q

What happens to the 3-phosphoglycerate (3PG) produced?

A

The 3-phosphoglycerate (3PG) produced is phosphorylated by ATP and combined with hydrogen from NADPH to form glyceraldehyde- 3-phosphate (G3P).

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21
Q

What is G3P used for?

A

G3P is used to regenerate RuBP and for the synthesis of glucose.

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22
Q

Summarise Photosynthesis

A

Absorbed light energy excites electrons in the pigment molecule.
Transfer of these electrons through the electron transport chain releases energy to generate ATP by ATP synthase.
Energy is also used for photolysis, in which water is split into oxygen, which is evolved, and hydrogen, which is transferred to the coenzyme NADP.
In the carbon fixation stage (Calvin cycle), the enzyme RuBisCO fixes carbon dioxide by attaching it to ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP).
The 3-phosphoglycerate (3PG) produced is phosphorylated by ATP and combined with hydrogen from NADPH to form glyceraldehyde- 3-phosphate (G3P).
G3P is used to regenerate RuBP and for the synthesis of glucose.
Glucose may be used as a respiratory substrate, synthesised into starch or cellulose or passed to other biosynthetic pathways.
These biosynthetic pathways can lead to the formation of a variety of metabolites such as DNA, protein and fat.

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23
Q

What may glucose be used as?

A

Glucose may be used as a respiratory substrate, synthesised into starch or cellulose or passed to other biosynthetic pathways.

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24
Q

What can these biosynthetic pathways lead to?

A

These biosynthetic pathways can lead to the formation of a variety of metabolites such as DNA, protein and fat.

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25
Q

Plant and animal breeding to improve what? Why?

A

Plant and animal breeding to improve characteristics to help support sustainable food production.

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26
Q

What do breeders develop crops and animals with? What 4 things?

A

Breeders develop crops and animals with higher food yields, higher nutritional values, pest and disease resistance and ability to thrive in particular environmental condition

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27
Q

What are plant field trials carried out in a range of?
Why is this?

A

Plant field trials are carried out in a range of environments to compare the performance of different cultivars or treatments and to evaluate GM crops.

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28
Q

In designing field trials account has to be taken of what 3 things?

A

In designing field trials account has to be taken of: the selection of treatments, the number of replicates and the randomisation of treatments.

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29
Q

The selection of treatments to ensure_____________.
The number of replicates to take account of what?
Randomisation of treatments to do what when measuring treatment effects?

A

The selection of treatments to ensure valid comparisons, the number of replicates to take account of the variability within the sample, and the randomisation of treatments to eliminate bias when measuring treatment effects.

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30
Q

In inbreeding, what are selected related plants or animals bred for? What does this happen until?

A

In inbreeding, selected related plants or animals are bred for several generations until the population breeds true to the desired type due to the elimination of heterozygotes.

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31
Q

What are monohybrid crosses used for?

A

Analysis of patterns of inheritance in inbreeding using monohybrid crosses.

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32
Q

What can a result of inbreeding be an increase in?

A

A result of inbreeding can be an increase in the frequency of individuals who are homozygous for recessive deleterious alleles.

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33
Q

These individuals will do less well at surviving to reproduce. What does this result in?

A

This results in inbreeding depression.

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34
Q

In animals, what may individuals from different breeds produce?

A

In animals, individuals from different breeds may produce a new crossbreed population with improved characteristics.

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35
Q

The two parent breeds can be maintained to produce more of what? What does this show?

A

The two parent breeds can be maintained to produce more crossbred animals showing the improved characteristic.

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36
Q

How can new alleles can be introduced to plant and animal lines? 2 ways.

A

New alleles can be introduced to plant and animal lines by crossing a cultivar or breed with an individual with a different, desired genotype.

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37
Q

In plants, how are F1 hybrids produced? What crop does this create?

A

In plants, F1 hybrids, produced by the crossing of two different inbred lines, create a relatively uniform heterozygous crop.

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38
Q

F1 hybrids often have increased what?

A

F1 hybrids often have increased vigour and yield.

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39
Q

Plants with increased vigour may have increased what?

A

Plants with increased vigour may have increased disease resistance or increased growth rate.

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40
Q

In inbreeding animals and plants, F1 hybrids are not usually what? Why is this?

A

In inbreeding animals and plants, F1 hybrids are not usually bred together as the F2 produced shows too much variation.

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41
Q

As a result of genome sequencing, organisms with desirable genes can be what?

A

As a result of genome sequencing, organisms with desirable genes can be identified and then used in breeding programmes.

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42
Q

Single genes for desirable characteristics can be inserted into what? What does this create?

A

Single genes for desirable characteristics can be inserted into the genomes of crop plants, creating genetically modified plants with improved characteristics.

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43
Q

What can breeding programmes involve?

A

Breeding programmes can involve crop plants that have been genetically modified using recombinant DNA technology.

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44
Q

What does Recombinant DNA technology in plant breeding include?

A

Recombinant DNA technology in plant breeding includes insertion of Bt toxin gene into plants for pest resistance, glyphosate resistance gene inserted for herbicide tolerance.

45
Q

What are 4 properties of annual weeds?

A

Properties of annual weeds — rapid growth, short life cycle, high seed output and long- term seed viability.

46
Q

What are 2 properties of perennial weeds with competitive adaptations?

A

Properties of perennial weeds with competitive adaptations — storage organs and vegetative reproduction.

47
Q

Most of the pests of crop plants are____________animals such as insects, nematode worms and molluscs.

A

Most of the pests of crop plants are invertebrate animals such as insects, nematode worms and molluscs.

48
Q

Plant diseases can be caused by what 3 things and what carry them?

A

Plant diseases can be caused by fungi, bacteria or viruses, which are often carried by invertebrates.

49
Q

Control of weeds, other pests and diseases by cultural methods.

A

Ploughing, weeding and crop rotation.

50
Q

What are 5 examples of pesticides and what do they do?

A

Pesticides include herbicides to kill weeds, fungicides to control fungal diseases, insecticides to kill insect pests, molluscicides to kill mollusc pests and nematicides to kill nematode pests.

51
Q

What have a greater effect on certain plant species (broad leaved weeds)?

A

Selective herbicides have a greater effect on certain plant species (broad leaved weeds).

52
Q

What spreads through the vascular system of plant and prevents regrowth.

A

Systemic herbicide spreads through vascular system of plant and prevents regrowth.

53
Q

What do Systemic insecticides, molluscicides and nematicides spread through?

A

Systemic insecticides, molluscicides and nematicides spread through the vascular system of plants and kill pests feeding on plants.

54
Q

What are 5 problems with pesticides?

A

Problems with pesticides: toxicity to non-target species, persistence in the environment, bioaccumulation or biomagnification in food chains, producing resistant populations of pests.

55
Q

What is more effective than treating diseased crops?

A

Applications of fungicide based on disease forecasts are more effective than treating diseased crops.

56
Q

What is bioaccumulation?

A

Bioaccumulation is a build-up of a chemical in an organism. Biomagnification is an increase in the concentration of a chemical moving between trophic levels.

57
Q

In biological control what 3 things could control agent be?

A

In biological control the control agent is a natural predator, parasite or pathogen of the pest.

58
Q

Integrated pest management is a combination of what 3 things?

A

Integrated pest management is a combination of chemical, biological and cultural control.

59
Q

What 4 things might the control organism become?

A

The control organism may become an invasive species, parasitise, prey on or be a pathogen of other species.

60
Q

Why is intensive farming less ethical than free range farming?

A

Intensive farming is less ethical than free range farming due to poorer animal welfare.

61
Q

What does free range require more of?

A

Free range requires more land and is more labour intensive but can be sold at a higher price and animals have a better quality of life.

62
Q

What does intensive farming often create?

A

Intensive farming often creates conditions of poor animal welfare but is often more cost effective, generating higher profit as costs are low.

63
Q

What are 5 behavioural indicators of poor animal welfare?

A

Behavioural indicators of poor animal welfare are stereotypy, misdirected behaviour, failure in sexual or parental behaviour and altered levels of activity.

64
Q

Very low (______) or very high (_______) levels of activity.

A

Very low (apathy) or very high (hysteria) levels of activity.

65
Q

What is symbiosis?

A

Symbiosis — co-evolved intimate relationships between members of two different species.

66
Q

What are 2 types of symbiotic relationship?

A

Types of symbiotic relationship — parasitism and mutualism.

67
Q

How does a parasite benefit compared to its host?

A

A parasite benefits in terms of energy or nutrients, whereas its host is harmed by the loss of these resources.

68
Q

What do parasites often have?

A

Parasites often have limited metabolism and cannot survive out of contact with a host.

69
Q

What 3 things does transmission of parasites to new hosts use?

A

Transmission of parasites to new hosts using direct contact, resistant stages and vectors.

70
Q

What do some parasitic life cycles involve to allow them to complete their life cycle?

A

Some parasitic life cycles involve intermediate (secondary) hosts to allow them to complete their life cycle.

71
Q

What is social hierarchy?

A

Social hierarchy is a rank order within a group of animals consisting of a dominant and subordinate members.

72
Q

In a social hierarchy, what do dominant individuals carry out? Whilst what to subordinate animals carry out?

A

In a social hierarchy, dominant individuals carry out ritualistic (threat) displays whilst subordinate animals carry out appeasement behaviour to reduce conflict.

73
Q

What do social hierarchies increase?

A

Social hierarchies increase the chances of the dominant animal’s favourable genes being passed on to offspring.

74
Q

Why do animals often form alliances in social hierarchies?

A

Animals often form alliances in social hierarchies to increase their social status within the group.

75
Q

Co-operative hunting may benefit what?
Why is this?

A

Co-operative hunting may benefit subordinate animals as well as dominant ones, as they may gain more food than by foraging alone.

76
Q

Less ______ is used per individual.

A

Less energy is used per individual.

77
Q

What does co-operative hunting enable? What does this increase?

A

Co- operative hunting enables larger prey to be caught and increases the chance of success.

78
Q

What do social defence strategies increase? How come?

A

Social defence strategies increase the chance of survival as some individuals can watch for predators whilst others can forage for food.

79
Q

What do groups adopt when under attack protecting their young?

A

Groups adopt specialised formations when under attack protecting their young.

80
Q

What does an altruistic behaviour harm and what does it benefit?

A

An altruistic behaviour harms the donor individual but benefits the recipient.

81
Q

What is reciprocal altruism?

A

Reciprocal altruism, where the roles of donor and recipient later reverse, often occurs in social animals.

82
Q

Behaviour that appears to be_________ can be common between a donor and a recipient if they are related (kin).

A

Behaviour that appears to be altruistic can be common between a donor and a recipient if they are related (kin).

83
Q

The donor will benefit in what kind of selection? In terms of the increased chances of survival of shared genes in the recipient’s offspring or future offspring.

A

The donor will benefit in kin selection in terms of the increased chances of survival of shared genes in the recipient’s offspring or future offspring.

84
Q

Social insects and the structure of their society in which only some individuals (queens and drones) contribute what?

A

Social insects and the structure of their society in which only some individuals (queens and drones) contribute reproductively.

85
Q

Most members of the colony are?

A

Most members of the colony are sterile workers who co-operate with close relatives to raise relatives.

86
Q

What do social insects include? 4 examples.

A

Social insects include bees, wasps, ants and termites.

87
Q

What do other examples of workers roles include in bees? 3 examples.

A

Other examples of workers’ roles include defending the hive, collecting pollen and carrying out waggle dances to show the direction of food.

88
Q

What do sterile workers raise?

A

Sterile workers raise relatives to increase survival of shared genes.

89
Q

What do primates have?

A

Primates have a long period of parental care to allow learning of complex social behaviour.

90
Q

What do complex social behaviours support?

A

Complex social behaviours support the social hierarchy. Grooming, facial expression, body posture and sexual presentation.

91
Q

Complex social behaviours support the social hierarchy. Grooming, facial expression, body posture and sexual presentation. What does this reduce?

A

This reduces conflict through ritualistic display and appeasement behaviour.

92
Q

Alliances form between individuals, which are often used to increase what?

A

Alliances form between individuals, which are often used to increase social status within the group.

93
Q

What are the 3 components of biodiversity?

A

Components of biodiversity are genetic diversity, species diversity and ecosystem diversity.

94
Q

What is genetic diversity?

A

Genetic diversity is the number and frequency of all the alleles within a population.

95
Q

If one population of a species dies out then the species may have lost what?

A

If one population of a species dies out then the species may have lost some of its genetic diversity, and this may limit its ability to adapt to changing conditions.

96
Q

Species diversity comprises the what?
(basically what is it?)

A

Species diversity comprises the number of different species in an ecosystem (the species richness) and the proportion of each species in the ecosystem (the relative abundance).

97
Q

A community with a dominant species has a lower ____________ than one with the same species___________ but no particularly__________ species.

A

A community with a dominant species has a lower species diversity than one with the same species richness but no particularly dominant species.

98
Q

Ecosystem diversity refers to what?

A

Ecosystem diversity refers to the number of distinct ecosystems within a defined area.

99
Q

With what, can populations be reduced to a low level but may still recover?

A

With overexploitation, populations can be reduced to a low level but may still recover.

100
Q

What do some species naturally have? What do they yet remain?

A

Some species have a naturally low genetic diversity in their population and yet remain viable.

101
Q

What is the bottleneck effect?

A

The bottleneck effect — small populations may lose the genetic variation necessary to enable evolutionary responses to environmental change.

102
Q

In small populations, what effect can this loss of genetic diversity have?

A

In small populations, this loss of genetic diversity can be critical for many species, as inbreeding can result in poor reproductive rates.

103
Q

What do the corridors allow?

A

The corridors allow movement of animals between fragments increasing access to food and choice of mate.

104
Q

The corridors allow movement of animals between fragments increasing access to food and choice of mate. What might this may lead to?

A

This may lead to recolonisation of small fragments after local extinctions.

105
Q

What are introduced (non-native) species?

A

Introduced (non-native) species are those that humans have moved either intentionally or accidentally to new geographic locations.

106
Q

What are naturalised species?

A

Those that become established within wild communities are termed naturalised species.

107
Q

What are invasive species?

A

Invasive species are naturalised species that spread rapidly and eliminate native species therefore reducing species diversity.

108
Q

What might invasive species be well free of?

A

Invasive species may well be free of the predators, parasites, pathogens and competitors that limit their population in their native habitat.

109
Q

What might invasive species do with native species?

A

Invasive species may prey on native species, out-compete them for resources or hybridise with them.

Higher Biology (3 decks)

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