task 1 Flashcards
(39 cards)
1
Q
emergence of fire
A
first emerged during the time of homo Erectus
2
Q
different uses of fire/consequences
A
- guarding against animal predators
- cooking food > better quality > growth of brain / less illnesses (less bacteria)
- as heating source > possibility of traveling to colder climates > cultural expansion
3
Q
what are the fundamental problems with fire?
A
- problem of ignition:
- natural caused > is not always there when needed fire > what technique causes combustion?
- friction between two dry inflammable surfaces > raises point of contact to temperature at which combustion will occur
- problem of choice of fuel
- wood is most efficient producer of heat / some sorts are better than others
- breackthrough: charcoal
- problem of extension of the range of use
- application is largely confined to cooking by roasting
4
Q
starting point of “science”
A
- discovery of pottery (5th millennium BC)
- discovery/development of glass (5.000 years ago)
- technology of metals (after pottery/most kinds: 19th century)
- writing and scientific record (6.000-300 BC)
- numbers/measurement (35.000-20.000 BC)
5
Q
Cambrian explosion
A
- beginning of “real life”
- some 542 million years ago
- -> emergence of organic life forms
- -> start of photosynthesis
6
Q
Cambrian explosion: further divisions
A
- Paleozoic era: 540-250 million
- Mesozoic era: 250-66 million
- Cenozoic era: 66 million to now
=> throughout this time: intelligence wasn’t necessary for survival
7
Q
Neolithic revolution
A
- around 10.000 BC
- transition from nomadic HUNTER-GATHERER -> FARMING & SETTLEMENT
- greater complexity of SOCIAL INTERACTIONS
- further impetus for THOUGHT & LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
- sedentary farming communities changed human interactions:
- -> from COOPERATION & SHARING > PROTECTION of goods & increased level of CONFLICT
8
Q
preliterate civilisation: 3 characteristics
-> Lindberg
A
- KNOW-HOW
- knowledge is confined to “know-how” WITHOUT theoretical understanding of underlying principles - FLUIDITY OF KNOWLEDGE
- historical knowledge is limited to two generations
- function of oral tradition is transmission of practical skills - ANIMISM
- collection of myths and stories about beginning of universe / life / natural phenomena / etc.
- -> based on animism
=> scientific thinking cannot occur without written records
9
Q
animism
A
- explanation of workings of the world and the universe by means of spirits with human-like characteristics
- distinction between “primitive people” and “scientific thinking”
10
Q
protowriting
A
- emerged at around 6.000-300 BC in China / Egypt & Sumer / America
- represents entities without linguistic information linking them
- writing systems were a combination of pictograms and phonograms
- led to alphabetic writing system
- -> became logographic rather than pictographic
11
Q
pictograms & phonograms
A
pictogram:
information conveying sign that consists of a picture resembling the object it represents
phonogram:
a sign that represents a sound or a syllable of spoken language
12
Q
first alphabet ?????????
A
=> written records as basis of comulative nature of science
–> however: Socrates thought that availability of books made students lazy and discouraged them from properly studying
13
Q
scholastic method
A
- particularly in the Middle ages
- students were taught to read and understand texts exactly as they were
- its abandonment by the Protestant churches was one of the reasons why science took such a high flight
14
Q
scriptio continua
A
- in 8th century
- writers start to put spaces between the words
- -> this quality of texts made silent reading possible
15
Q
numbers
A
- 35.000-20.000 BC: earliest evidence of counting
- quite early in evolution of human they could make distinctions up to three
- -> subitising
- all Indo-European languages share same roots for umbers 1 to 10
- -> split around 2.000 BC
16
Q
place coding system
A
- fully in use by 500 AD
- system in which the meaning of a sign not only depends on its FORM but also on its POSITION in a string: “46.997”
- symbol for absence of a quantity at certain slot: “0”
- system was adopted by Arabs > changed & resulted in the current practice (Arabic numerals) s
17
Q
egyptian vs. mesopotamian numeric advances
A
egyptians:
- main contributions were:
- -> geometrical knowledge
- -> devising of a calendar
mesopotamians:
- mathematical knowledge
- -> advanced number system
- -> mastering of basic algebraic equations
- —> practical use on astronomy
18
Q
consequences of growth of science
A
resulted in different qualities:
- political stability
- urbanisation
- patronage
- availability of a writing system
19
Q
philosophy
A
- around 600 BCE
- greeks were the first culture that started asking serious questions about the nature of the world
20
Q
Plato’s
A
- 427-348 BC
- distinction between realm of eternal and realm of the ever-changing material reality
–> true path to knowledge was inward of reasoning rather than the outward path of perception
=> RATIONALISM (theoretical)
21
Q
Aristotle
A
- 384-322 BC
- had been member of Plato’s school
- based his knowledge on careful observation of reality
- wrote extensively on human physiology and psychology
=> EMPIRICISM (practical)
22
Q
four schools of Athen
A
- academy (Plato)
- lyceum (Aristotle)
- Stoa
- -> based on self-control / fortitude / detachment from distracting emotions - Garden of Epicurus
- -> based on virtuous and temperate life with enjoyment of simple pleasure by knowledge and friendship
23
Q
Romans on acquiring knowledge
A
romans are much more interested in practical questions than the philosophical debates that preoccupied the Greeks
24
Q
Byzantine empire
A
- 395-1453 AD
- dominance of Greek culture and language
- main contribution of history of science was the preservation of the Greek’s legacy
- emergence and eventual dominance of Christian religion > main factor for decline of scientific advancement
25
Arab empire
- 622-750
- interest in science got a strong impetus 749 EC
- -> apport / translation / research / advancement of Greek works
26
remains of the Western Roman Empire
- towards end: sharp decline in scientific endeavour
- -> due to political upheaval and economic downfall
- diminishing knowledge of Greek language
- -> Romans dominated other nations > inclination to learn Latin rather than Greek
=> leads to the "Dark Ages"
27
"Dark Ages"
- middle ages in Western Europe (after fall of Rome 476 AD)
- catholic church became patron of learning
- -> science was not at the forefront of education
- -> scientific knowledge fell back from the level it had reached
28
Renaissance
- 15th-16th century
- "revival of learning" > foundation of schools and universities
- -> arabic and greek texts included in curricula
29
protestant reformation
- starting 1516 AD
- Martin Luther revolted against the perceived greed and corruption of Papacy
- emphasised the need for education / CRITICAL THINKING (rather than scholastic method) / hard work / worldly success
=> further development of science
30
book printing
- around 1450 AD
- invention of book printing in Europe by Johannes Gutenberg
=> rapid and massive availability of information
31
biases in history writing
- focus on individuals
- matthew effect
- hindsight bias
- ethnocentrism
- summaries of summaries
32
biases in history writing:
| focus on individuals
- historical writings are focused on individuals
| - zeitgeist: time has come for an invention to be discovered > usually not only one did discover it
33
biases in history writing:
| matthew effect
more credit is given to eminent scientists than they actually deserve
34
biases in history writing:
| hindsight bias
tendency to assume that individuals knew more than they actually did
35
biases in history writing:
| ethnocentrism
tendency to give too much credit to the input of economically dominant groups
36
biases in history writing:
| summaries of summaries
- very few general history books are based on a full analysis of the original sources
- -> build on other books summaries
37
ARTICLE: Dunbar
- neocortex ←→ groups size
- species-related limited groups size
- -> consequence of enlarged brain size
38
Fertile Crescent
- region in the middle east with high level of civilisation at around 3.000 BC
- incl. ancient Mesopotamian & ancient Egyptian civilisation
39
sumerian number system
- base on 60
| - consequences: our time units are based on 60 (sec./min./h.)
