task 2 Flashcards
episodic memory
- “I remember”
- for specific autobiographical events
- includes information about spatial & temporal contexts in which event occurred
> inference effect: repeated exposure weakens it
semantic memory
- “I know”
- for facts/general knowledge about world
- -> incl. general personal information
episodic declarative semantic
SIMILARITIES
- can be communicated flexibly
- -> in a format other than that in which it was acquired
- consciously accessible
DIFFERENCES:
- EP: tagged with spatial/temporal context
- SEM: NOT NECESSARILY tagged with spatial/temporal context
- EP: you must have experienced the event personally
- SEM: can be PERSONAL or GENERAL information
- EP: learned in a SINGLE EXPOSURE
- SEM: can be learned in a single exposure, but can also be STRENGTHENED BY REPETITION
declarative memory
- broad class of memories
- incl. episodic & semantic
- can typically be verbalised/explicitly communicated in some other way
nondeclarative memory
- broad class of memory
- incl. skill memory & other types of learning (NOT episodic/semantic)
- -> not always consciously accessible/easy to verbalise
explicit memory
- incl. episodic & semantic memory
- consists of memories the person is aware of
- -> “you know that you know”
implicit memory
- memory that occurs without the learner’s awareness
Can nonhumans have episodic and semantic memory?
yes!
- it is possible to account for episodic/semantic memory in animals
- -> radial arm maze (rat goes straight for the arm in the maze where the food was the last times)
- -> birds hiding their food
three distinct life stages of both memories
- ACQUISITION
- information must be encoded or put in memory - RETENTION
- memory must be retained or kept in mind/memory - RECALL
- memory must be retrieved when needed
factors that affect life stages of both memories (5)
- relation: new information <> preexisting context
- deeper processing at encoding improves recognition later
- recency effect
- relation: retrieval context <> encoding context
- relation: recall <> possible cues
factors that affect life stages of both memories
–> RELATION: NEW INFORMATION <> PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
- easier to remember information we can interpret in context of things we already know
study:
- participants were separated in 3 groups
- task: read paragraph and recall items afterwards
- (1) no picture (2) saw picture in beforehand (3) saw picture afterwards
» groups performance (best>worst): (2) / (3) / (1)
factors that affect life stages of both memories
–> DEEPER PROCESSING AT ENCODING IMPROVES RECOGNITION LATER
LEVELS-OF-PROCESSING EFFECT:
- deeper processing (semantic meaning) leads to better recall of information than shallow processing (spelling/pronunciation)
study:
1. participants were shown words and had to decide if it was either (1) animate or inanimate or (2) if first and last letter were in alphabetical order or not
2. afterwards they were presented with a list of words and had to state of each word was presented in beforehand or not
» condition (1) recognised many more words than condition (2)
factors that affect life stages of both memories
–> RECENCY EFFECT
- we are more likely to remember events that happened recently than such that happened long ago
- if we can remember facts/events after months > most likely to remember it permanently
- CONSOLIDATION PERIOD:
- -> characteristic of episodic/semantic memory
- -> period during which new memories are vulnerable and easily lost
factors that affect life stages of both memories
–> RELATION: RETRIEVAL CONTEXT <> ENCODING CONTEXT
- processing during encoding might only help if retrieval also requires that type of processing
- -> recall is better when retrieval context is similar to encoding context
TRANSFER-APPROPRIATE PROCESSING:
- retrieval is more likely if cues that are available during recall are similar to cues that were available during encoding
- performance is worse when recall and encoding formats differ
=> context has powerful impact on memory retrieval
factors that affect life stages of both memories
–> RELATION: RECALL <> AVAILABLE CUES
- the more cues the better the recall:
> FREE RECALL:
–> test to generate information from memory
–> no explicit cues = hardest one
> CUED RECALL:
–> test in which some kind of prompt is given
–> some cues are provided
> RECOGNITION:
–> multiple choice test
–> entire item is provided = easiest one
memory failures
- interference
- false memory
- source amnesia (source monitoring error)
memory failures
–> INTERFERENCE
- when to memories overlap
- -> strength of either or both memories may be reduced
> proactive interference:
- disruption of new learning by previously stored information
retroactive interference:
- disruption of old (previously stored) information by new learning
memory failures
–> SOURCE AMNESIA (source monitoring error)
- remembering information but being mistake about the specific episode of that is source of memory
> cryptomnesia
- person mistakenly thinks that his cureent thoughts/ideas are new/original
memory failures
–> FALSE MEMORY
- memory of an event that never actually happened
- tend to occur when people are prompted to imagine missing details
directed forgetting
- procedure in which subject first asked to learn information and later asked to remember or forget specific items
- memory is worse for items a subject was directed to forget
cerebral cortex and semantic memory
- semantic memories are stored in the cerebral cortex
- semantic networks are organised by object properties
SENSORY CORTEX:
- areas in
- -> parietal lobe: somatosensory cortex
- -> occupital lobe: visual cortex
- -> superior temporal lobe: auditory cortex
ASSOCIATION CORTEX:
- other cortical areas involved in association information within and across modalities
- -> links visual information with the semantic and linguistic information of a word
- cortical damage leads to display agnosia
- -> selective disruption of ability to process particular information
medial temporal lobes and memory storage
- incl. hippocampus / amygdala / nearby cortical areas
- lobes are intimately involved in memory encoding
- can distinguish between true episodic memory from false ones
> PATIENT H.M.
- radial arm maze > rats have trouble remembering which arms they’ve already visited on trial
patient H.M.
- had epileptic seizures since childhood that became debilitating
- brain surgery: doctors removed medial temporal lobes bilaterally
» seizures declined in frequency/severity but ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA
anterograde vs. retrograde amnesia
ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA:
- severe loss of ability to form new episodic and semantic memories
RETROGRADE AMNESIA:
- loss of memories for events dating before brain injury/disruption
- memory loss in time-graded manner:
- -> more recent ones are devastated but older ones may be spared
