TASK 4 - BIOLOGICAL BASES

Question 1

four humours (galen)

Answer 1

• personality/temperament depends on strength of fluids/humours
  1. blood = sanguine; cheerful
  2. black bile = melancholic; depressive
  3. yellow bile = choleric; angry
  4. phlegm = phlegmatic; calm

Question 2

temperament in dogs (pavlov)

Answer 2

1. strong balanced mobile = sanguine –> lively, fast, eager
2. weak = melancholic –> inhibited, anxious, easily upset
3. strong unbalanced = choleric –> excitable, hyperactive, irritable
4. strong balanced slow = phlegmatic –> calm, consistent

Question 3

cloninger’s theory

= tridimensional personality model

Answer 3

= relations between neurotransmitters and personality dimensions

Question 4

A. dopamine (cloninger)

Answer 4

= facilitates response to pleasurable, exciting stimuli; transmission of signals of reward

• active = high levels of novelty seeking (= tendency to seek pleasure and excitement) –> exploratory, excitability, impulsiveness
• inactive = low in novelty seeking –> not motivated to find fun and variety

Question 5

B. serotonin (cloninger)

Answer 5

= inhibits response to harmful, unpleasant stimuli; transmission of signals of punishment

• inactive = high levels of harm avoidance (= tendency to avoid pain and anxiety) –> worry, pessimism, fear of uncertainty
• active = low in harm avoidance –> not motivated to avoid pain and anxiety (risk-taking)

Question 6

C. noradrenaline (cloninger)

Answer 6

= inhibits response to stimuli that have previously been associated with pleasure; transmission of signals of conditioned reward

• inactive = high levels of reward dependence (= tendency to develop strong sentimental attachments; related to one’s response to people/things that have tended to be associated with pleasure) –> sentimentality, warm communication, dependence
• active = low levels in reward dependence –> not develop strong sentimental attachments

Question 7

gray’s theory

= reinforcement sensitivity theory

Answer 7

= certain regions of the brain work together as mechanisms or systems that underlie personality
- differences among people in activity of these systems are basis of important personality dimensions

Question 8

A. behavioural activation system (gray)

Answer 8

= regions of brain receiving signals indicating that rewards are being experienced

• ‘GO’ system = encourages pursuit of rewards –> signals to communicate pleasurable and exciting nature of rewards
• differences in tendency to be impulsive, seek pleasure and excitement –> the stronger, the more one tends to pursue rewards
• -> cloninger’s novelty seeking

Question 9

B. behavioural inhibition system (gray)

Answer 9

= regions of brain receiving signals indicating that punishments are being experienced

• ‘STOP’ system = encourages the avoidance of punishments –> signals to communicate the painful and frightening nature of punishments
• differences in tendency to be anxious and to avoid pain –> the stronger, the more one tends to avoid punishments
• -> cloninger’s harm avoidance

Question 10

C. fight-or-flight system (gray)

Answer 10

= regions of the brain motivating extreme reactions (fight or flight) in response to extremely threatening situations

• differences in tendency to show extreme reactions, (responding aggressively, leaving hurriedly) –> the stronger, the more ready one is to fight or to flee when an emergency situation arises
• -> cloninger’s reward dependency

Question 11

eyseneck’s theory

= theory of personality

Answer 11

A. extraversion vs. introversion
B. neuroticism vs. emotional stability
C. psychoticism

Question 12

A. extraversion vs. introversion

Answer 12

= strength of reactions to stimulation (difference in arousability of people’s brains)

1. extraversion: seek stimulation, bored by low level of stimulation (enjoy loud noises, bright colours, meeting people)
2. introversion: avoid stimulation, prefer low level of stimulation (prefer quieter surroundings, enjoy being alone)

ARAS (ascending reticular activating system):

• brain stem
• regulates amount of stimulation that is admitted to brain from NS which receives stimulation
• little stimulation in ARAS: under-aroused = seek stimulation = extraversion

Question 13

B. neuroticism vs. emotional stability

Answer 13

= strength of reactions to stressful stimuli (difference in sensitivity to stress)

1. neurotic: great deal of stress, sensitive to stress (nervousness, anxiety, fear)
2. emotionally stable: less sensitive to stress (little negative emotions caused by stresses)

limbic system:

• regulate responses to stress
• overwhelmed by stressful stimuli = neurotic

Question 14

C. psychoticism

Answer 14

• high levels: aggressiveness, manipulation, tough mindedness, risk taking, impulsivity (criminal behaviour, mental illnesses, creativity)
• low levels: opposite

high levels of testosterone +low levels of monoamine oxidase (MAO)

Question 15

zuckerman’s model

Answer 15

= five factors representing basic dimensions of personality/temperament

1. activity, 2. sociability, 3. impulsive sensation seeking, 4. aggression, 5. neuroticism-anxiety
   - each dimensions is caused by its own set of interactions among brain structures, neurotransmitters + hormones

Question 16

o-RST

= original reinforcement sensitivity theory (gray)

Answer 16

= focused on motivational systems

• BAS = approach system
• BIS = defined avoidance orientation.

Question 17

r-RST

= revised reinforcement sensitivity theory

Answer 17

= sees BIS as comparator that evaluates whether to approach/avoid stimulus
- better definitions (BIS, BAS, FFFS).
√ strong basic personality model, grounded in neuroscience and animal learning
x under-utilised in literature, not have breadth in research
- most modern models under-represent systems of the r-RST (biologically-based) –> despite processing other qualities

Question 18

hybrid model of learning in personality (HMLP)

- comparison to gray

Answer 18

= concept of BAS; sensation seeking is potentially dysfunctional if directly expressed, but likely to be functional if expressed through socio-cognitive mediators (e.g. rationality/ conscientiousness)
- sensation seeking concerns exploratory behaviour that is not necessarily associated with reinforcement
√ clear differentiation between biological basis of sensation seeking and socio-cognitive mediators
√ sensation seeking consistent with BAS in r-RST
x only concerns BAS & mediators
x under-utilised in literature, no measure of punishment sensitivity

Question 19

approach & avoidance temperament model (AATM)

- comparison to gray

Answer 19

= behaviour distally predicted by temperament & proximally predicted by goals
–> approach temperament vs. avoidance temperament
- biologically based, makes predictions from BAS & BIS through socio-cognitive mechanisms of goals
√ clear differentiation between biological basis and socio-cognitive goals
x under-utilised in literature
x outdated (based on o-RST)

Question 20

psychobiological model of temperament & character (PMTC)

- comparison to gray

Answer 20

= character (socio-cognitive) is thought to predict outcomes independently from temperament (biological)
- incorporates genes & environment
- character dimensions: self-directedness, cooperativeness, self-transcendence
√ biological, includes amount of literature
x outdated (based on o-RST)

Question 21

hormones

Answer 21

= biological chemicals that are produced in glands of one part of the body, transmitted to other parts of body where they have their effects

Question 22

testosterone

- hormones

Answer 22

= responsible for many physical characteristics of men (development of male reproductive organs, hair growth, voice, muscle mass)

• situationally influenced (increase after victory, sex; decline after defeat)
• influence individual’s behaviour during early development
• higher levels: being wilder, more unruly
• lower levels: better behaved, more socially responsible, better academic achievement, more friendly

Question 23

cortisol

- hormones

Answer 23

= released by adrenal cortex (perimeter of adrenal glands) which are located above the kidneys; triggered by physical or psychological stress

• prepare body for action in response to stress (increase in blood pressure, blood sugar, suppression of immune system)
• little cortisol release = emotionally insensitive/reactive
• low cortisol = high sensation-seeking levels/risk-taking (men)

Question 24

oxytocin

- hormones

Answer 24

= produced in hypothalamus, released by pituitary gland

• release promotes close attachment with others = emotional bonding (giving birth, breastfeeding, orgasm)
• contribute to cooperative relationships by being trusting + trustworthy
• higher levels = more trusting + trustworthy

Question 25

mechanisms of action | - oxytocin

Answer 25

= neuropeptides can influence neurotransmission, not in same way as classical neurotransmitters (GABA, serotonin, dopamine) - slower degradation --> no effect over longer distances and thus no temporal specificity 1. dynamic concept: different areas of the brain use different modes of communication - exposure to certain stimuli can lead from one form of peptide release to another - emphasises task dependency, context + individual differences 2. volume transmission: three-dimensional diffusion into extracellular fluid + lack of obvious structural extracellular communication pathways - source of release may be distant from target cells 3. priming hypothesis: peptidergic oxytocin signal can trigger dendritic peptide release that is independent of electrical activity

Question 26

interaction with other systems | - oxytocin

Answer 26

= social affiliative behaviour (modulated by oxytocin) is accompanied by modulation of dopaminergic reward pathways - oxytocin can effectively modulate reward-related brain regions + elevate serotonin levels

Question 27

behaviour modulation | - oxytocin

Answer 27

= oxytocin modulates social behaviour - by increasing trust, empathy & pair bonding or by reducing social stress & anxiety - precise outcome mediated by context + individual variation - fear + emotion regulation: oxytocin reduces amygdala activation in response to fear - -> strongest effect when strong or socially relevant stimuli - anxiety: oxytocin reduces heightened anxiety

Question 28

functional connectivity | - ocytocin

Answer 28

= prolonged priming effect of oxytocin can elicit functional rewiring of neural networks - rewiring = temporary alteration (strengthening/weakening) of the way the network is configured and how it responds

Question 29

social regulation of stress

Answer 29

= social interaction and oxytocin are linked through feedback loop (specific social contexts promote OT release) --> regulates social cognition and behaviour - oxytocin reduces cortisol release in stressful situations (especially in interaction with social support)

Question 30

oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR)

Answer 30

= responsible for encoding oxytocin receptor protein - variations influence strength of oxytocin signal by affecting the number/ distribution/ efficiency of receptors - variants seem relevant to understanding individual differences in social behaviour and stress regulation

Question 31

two most widely studied OXTR SNPs

Answer 31

1. Rs53576 = associated with responses to social support - A allele: reduced responsiveness to social support received in anticipation of stress --> more stressed, lower tendency to seek social support = more oxytocin - G allele: less cortisol secretion, more oxytocin in response to social support --> less stressed, higher tendency to seek social support 2. Rs2254298 = associated with attachment status - A allele: secure attachment = more oxytocin - G allele: insecure attachment = lower levels of oxytocin

Question 32

theoretical model for development of individual differences in social regulation of stress

Answer 32

= genetic variants of OXTR are relevant during at least 2 stages of the psychological feedback loop --> connects stable cognitive representations of relationships in context of acute stress - role for oxytocin in individual differences, in responses to social support following stress - role for oxytocin in early development of stable cognitive representations of relationships --> influence how individuals use social support to regulate their stress

Question 33

personality neuroscience

Answer 33

= use of neuroscience methods to study individual differences in behaviour, motivation, emotion and cognition - three levels at which personality can be analysed: 1) traits: relatively stable patterns of behaviour, motivation, emotion 2) characteristic adaptations: individual’s specific responses to particular life circumstances 3) life stories

Question 34

1. meta-traits 2. big five 3. aspects 4. facets

Answer 34

1a. stability: tendency to regulate/restrain potentially disruptive emotion & behaviour - serotonin: regulatory/inhibiting effect on mood, behaviour & cognition 2a. neuroticism 3. withdrawal, volatility 2b. agreeableness 3. compassion, politeness 2c. conscientiousness 3. industriousness, orderliness 1b. plasticity: tendency to explore + engage with possibilities - dopamine: 2 branches 2d. extraversion 3. enthusiasm, assertiveness - -> 1 to brain regions involved in motivation, emotion & reward (nucleus accumbens, amygdala) = extraversion 2e. openness to experience 3. openness, intellect - -> 1 to structures for higher cognition (prefrontal cortex) = openness to experience 4. number and identity of facets is unclear

Question 35

2a. neuroticism

Answer 35

= sensitivity to punishment and negative affect; tendency to experience negative emotions and cognitions that accompany experiences of threat and punishment - brain activity at rest or in response to aversive or novel stimuli in amygdala, insula and anterior cingulate - neural activity in medial prefrontal cortex (= poor emotion regulation) + reduced volume - BIS: passive avoidance in situations where goals are in conflict --> hippocampus and amygdala - FFFS: responses to proximal threat or punishment --> amygdala, hypothalamus, periaqueductal gray. - lower serotonin levels (modulates BIS and FFFS)

Question 36

2b. agreeableness

Answer 36

= tendency toward altruism & opposed to exploitation of others - volume in brain regions associated with social information processing (superior temporal gyrus, posterior cingulate cortex, fusiform gyrus) - ability to suppress aggressive impulses & other socially disruptive emotions - -> left DLPFC (emotion regulation)

Question 37

2c. conscientiousness

Answer 37

= top-down control of behaviour and impulses in order to follow rules and pursue non-immediate goals - prefrontal cortex: greater volume in regions involved in maintaining goal-relevant info in WM + execution of planned action based on abstract rules. - low serotonin levels: linked to absence of control

Question 38

2d. extraversion

Answer 38

= sensitivity to reward and positive affect - dopamine (component of BAS) : sensitivity to reward, drives behaviour that involves approaching potential rewards 3. enthusiasm (= sociability & positive emotionality): linked to liking --> relates to opioid system 3. assertiveness: linked to wanting

Question 39

2e. openness/intellect

Answer 39

= tendency to explore, detect, appreciate and use patterns in abstract sensory information 3. intellect: intelligence and working-memory - dopamine influence on prefrontal cortex