Task 5.2

Question 1

What was the originally tool for gaining knowledge ? And by who was it found ?

Answer 1

• Deductive reasoning

- Plato

Question 2

Who made the first distinction between indcutive and deductive reasoning ?

Answer 2

• Aristotle (but still gave more attention to deductive)

Question 3

What is meant by deductive reasoning ?

Answer 3

• form of reasoning in which one starts from known statements and deduces new conclusions
• Example: ‘No children younger than 6 months talk, Harriet is a child younger than 6 months, therefore Harriet does not talk’

Question 4

What is meant by inductive reasoning ?

Answer 4

• Inductive reasoning, on the other hand, is a form of reasoning in which likely conclusions are drawn on the basis of a series of converging observations

Question 5

Name the core belief of inductive reasoning ?

Answer 5

• observations rather than personal opinions can be controlled and replicated by others

Question 6

What is meant by the logical positivism ?

Answer 6

• identified verification as the core principle of the scientific method
• it is scientific only if it can be verified as true/false through value free observation
• Verificationism

Question 7

What are three of the core beliefs of logical positivism ?

Answer 7

• philosophy should abandon its metaphysical questions
• used demacration criteria
• Deductive reasoning was only used regarding think which were already known
• Observation -> induction -> verification

Question 8

What is meant by demacration criteria ?

Answer 8

• observations need a set of criteria which need to be ahistorical (applicable at all time) and are universal

Question 9

What is meant by the correspondance theory of truth ?

Answer 9

• the assumption of a direct relationship between reality and perception
• used by logical positvism

Question 10

What are the cons of logical positvism?

Answer 10

• Perception is more than sensing isolated facts it involves interpretation to understand
• It is about background knowlede and unobservable varaiables
• Knowledge can’t be produced from facts alone

Question 11

What was poppers theory regarding logic ?

Answer 11

• Identified logic via falsification

Question 12

What is meant by falsification ?

Answer 12

scientific theories are different from non-scientific theories becuase scientific theories are falsifiable

Question 13

What is meant by the degree of falsiability ?

Answer 13

• the more falsifiable (dependent on level of detail) a theory the better the theory is

Question 14

What is meant by the Hypothetico deductive method ?

Answer 14

• science better considered as the formulation of theories
• uses inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning (educated guessing) to formulate theories which could be then falsified (trial and error)

Question 15

Why is it so difficult to use falsification ?

Answer 15

• because of the conformaton bias

Question 16

What is the conformation bias ?

Answer 16

• The tendency people have to search for evidence that confirms their opinions

Question 17

What were the problems with poppers theory ?

Answer 17

• Popper’s insistence on replacing falsified theories by bold alternatives as soon as they are falsified doesn’t agree with scientific practice which seems too radical
• many scientist cheated with ad hoc modification

Question 18

What is meant by ad hoc modifications ?

Answer 18

• modifiaction which make the arguments less falsifiable

- usually from a very detailed theory to a more broader one

Question 19

What is meant by kuhns scientific theory ?

Answer 19

• Supports poppers idea that there has to be a priority on the theory instead of a priority on observation
• it is an ongoing cycle
  1. Pre science 2. normal science 3. crisis 4. revolution…

Question 20

According to kuhn: What is meant by pre science ?

Answer 20

• unorganised facts, observations and models

- Later In this stage a paradigm will be formed which bring the frame work together

Question 21

According to kuhn: What is meant by normal science ?

Answer 21

• scientists solve puzzles within the existing paradigm and defend the paradigm against others who question
• stage of falsification
• modification are also done during the stage

Question 22

According to kuhn: What is meant by crisis ?

Answer 22

• During crises = unexplained observations (anomalies show up)
• Ad hoc modification show up
• similar to pre science phase
• searching for alternatives

Question 23

According to kuhn: What is meant by revolution ?

Answer 23

• from degernerative research programme to progressive research programm
• > leads to a paradigm shft

Question 24

What is meant degernerative research programme ?

Answer 24

• theory lags behind data
• a paradigm that does not allow researchers to make new predictions and that requires an increasing number of ad hoc modifications to account for the empirical findings
• By lakatos

Question 25

What is meant by progressive research programme ?

Answer 25

- theory keeps ahead of data - a paradigm that allows researchers to make new, unexpected predictions that can be tested empirically - by lakatos

Question 26

What are some cons regarding kuhn ?

Answer 26

- Never endling cycle -> paradigm shifts not necessarily better, just different (can it be considered progress?) - controversy between idealism and realism (kuhn said it was all about idealism and scientist stated that it is about realism)

Question 27

What is meant by Idealism ?

Answer 27

- the world as we know it is a construction of the mind | - human knowledge does not correspond to reality

Question 28

What is meant by realism ?

Answer 28

- Scientists claim they were discovering the physical reality - human knowledge corresponds to the reality

Question 29

What is meant by postmodernist ?

Answer 29

- someone who questions the special status of science and sees scientific explanations as stories told by a particular group of scientists - critic on popper and kuhn because they would be subjective

Question 30

What is meant by the science war ?

Answer 30

- debate between scientists and postmodernists

Question 31

What is meant by the pragmatism view ?

Answer 31

- human knowledge is information about how to cope with the world - knowledge arises from the interactions of the individual with the world - a claim is true if and only if it is useful

Question 32

What is meant by the method of tenacity ? (Explains gathering knowledge by the pragmatism)

Answer 32

- knowledge based on tradition | - most primitive

Question 33

What is meant by the Method of authority ? (Explains gathering knowledge by the pragmatism)

Answer 33

- knowledge gained via opinions formed by consulting experts

Question 34

What is meant by the Priori method ? (Explains gathering knowledge by the pragmatism)

Answer 34

- knowledge gained via deductive reasoning, intuition and logic

Question 35

What is meant by the Scientific method ? (Explains gathering knowledge by the pragmatism)

Answer 35

- knowledge is gained via scientific research

Question 36

Talk to someone about lakatos !!! CORE BELT

Answer 36

- Find in word document of course