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Marine Biology > Term 1 2023 Questions > Flashcards

Term 1 2023 Questions Flashcards

1
Q

why is the new lithosphere isostatically most buoyant

A

there’s a direct relationship between depth + age (so newest is lightest)

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2
Q

what subsections are marine biology subdivided into

A

functional biology, ecology and biodiversity

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3
Q

what were the earliest life forms

A

methane-producing Archea, 4.5 bn years ago

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4
Q

what’s an example of a divergent plate margin

A

Mid-Atlantic Ridge

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5
Q

what is an example of a convergent plate margin

A

Mariana Trench or NW Pacific

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6
Q

How do tectonics help reefs develop

A

through isostasy (gravity+buoyancy act on outers crust)

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7
Q

what features occupies the majority of the ocean floor

A

continental slope and ocean ridges (33%)

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8
Q

How much of earth is water

A

97%

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9
Q

What are the main properties of water

A

its a solvent, it has high covalent (allows things to stick), high thermal inertia (latent heat capacity), high viscosity (requires morphology that increases laminar flow)

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10
Q

What are the 2 properties that determine the physical (+chemical) ocean’s structure

A

Temperature and salinity (+depth+pressure)

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11
Q

how does ocean depth temperature profiles vary

A

spatially, temporally and with depth

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12
Q

what factors influence an ocean’s depth temperature profiles

A

seasonality, sunlight intensity, temperature

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13
Q

what are the 3 distinct zones of the ocean’s temperature

A

surface zone (mixed 25-500m), thermocline (200-1000m) and deep zone (>1000m)

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14
Q

how is the pycnocline (based on density) made

A

with the thermocline (temperature) and the halo cline (salinity)

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15
Q

what makes the ocean stratified

A

the temperature determining the density of the water, splitting it into layers that don’t mix often

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16
Q

why does the mixed layer deepen in winter

A

due to wind mixing (remove pycnocline)

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17
Q

what are the 3 important nutrients for phytoplankton

A

nitrogen, phosphorus, silicon

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18
Q

what is the global salinity for seawater

A

34.7% or 34.7ppm

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19
Q

why is salinity more important in colder areas

A

salt is key for deep waters and drives circulation

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20
Q

what are the properties of salt

A

non potable, highly corrosive, harmful to many terrestrial plants

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21
Q

why are the subtropics salty

A

they’re warmer so there’s more evaporation

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22
Q

why are equatorial waters fresher

A

more precipitation and stronger hydrometeorlogical cycles

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23
Q

why are the poles fresher

A

less evaporation, glacial melt and very cold so dense salt sinks

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24
Q

why is the Atlantic salty

A

the continents shapes limit circulation and lots of mineral deposits from rivers

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25
Q

what are the effects of water when salinity is increased

A

density increases, boiling point increases and freezing point is lowered

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26
Q

how is salinity measured in the ocean

A

directly: Niskin bottle samples indirectly: CTD (electronic sensors)

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27
Q

what store has the longest residency times in the global water cycle

A

the ocean - ~3,000yrs

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28
Q

how are ocean currents driven

A

by wind currents (surface) or global overturning circulation (density-driven), Coriolis force

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29
Q

What is the only gyre that circumvents the whole earth

A

Antarctic Circumpolar Current

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30
Q

What current carries warm water to the UK

A

Gulf Stream

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31
Q

what type of flow is caused in cyclonic wind (low pressure)

A

divergent flow causing upwelling due to surface divergence

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32
Q

what type of flow is caused in anticyclonic wind (high pressure)

A

convergent flow causing downwelling due to surface convergence

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33
Q

what is the features of the Pacific Ocean circulation

A

2 subtropical gyres with dominant equatorial countercurrents

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34
Q

what are the 2 categories to organise pelagic organisms

A

nekton and plankton

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35
Q

what are the types of phytoplankton

A

diatoms, dinoflaggelates, coccolithophorids, cyanobacteria

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36
Q

what are the types of zooplankton

A

viruses + bacteria (pico), ciliatiates, dinoflagellates + metazoan larvae (micro), copepods (meso), and gelatinous (macro)

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37
Q

what are the pelagic reigns of the ocean

A

epipelagic, mesopelagic, bathypelagic, abyssal pelagic, hadalpelagic

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38
Q

what are the benthic regions of the ocean

A

littoral, sublittoral, bathyal, abyssal, hadal

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39
Q

how is the pelagic realm defined

A

based on depth and proximity to land

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40
Q

what is plankton defined by

A

size and broad ecological role

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41
Q

why do marine systems only have 4/5 levels

A

inefficient eating (>70% lost as heat), long food chains are unstable, predator design is limited, omnivory popular

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42
Q

what is a good predictor of trophic level in marine organisms

A

body size (energetic demands increase with size) +PP are very small and numerous

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43
Q

why are marine food webs more complex

A

low levels of specialism (omnivores), opens of system, large sizes changes along life history, long lifespans (ontogenetic shifts)

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44
Q

what was evidence of top-down control

A

Overfishing of cod in N.Atlantic, increase in crustacea

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45
Q

evidence of trophic cascades

A

removal of sea otters= increased sea urchins and kelp decreased

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46
Q

example of mesopredator release

A

removal of cape fur seals led to large predatory fish dominance, depleting stocks

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47
Q

why does carbon form the backbone of life on earth

A

has intermediate electronegativity (can form several covalence bonds), it’s less reactive and has 4 valence electrons (form rings + chains)

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48
Q

what is the Redfield ration

A

106:16:1 (C:N:P)

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49
Q

how do nutrients cycle

A

remobilising: currents, upwellings, upwards migration of organisms. Sinking and dead o C: marine snow, waste and dead organisms

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50
Q

what do seafloor carbon stocks do

A

cycle, bury and redistribute nutrients eg. photosysnthesis, trapping sediment

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51
Q

what are human-influenced disruptions to marine nutrient cycles

A

ocean acidification, hypoxia (Gulf of Mexico dead zone), SST temps increasing

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52
Q

are the root adaptations for mangroves

A

shallow roots, aerial roots, elongation (<9mm/day), aerenchyma, branching, pneumatophore, roots have negative hyrdostatic pressure

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53
Q

where are mangroves distributed

A

20C isotherms of sea temp

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54
Q

why are mangroves so important

A

create coastline stability, nursery grounds + provide source of PP

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55
Q

how much of seagrass biomass is underground

A

20-60%

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56
Q

why are seagrasses important

A

reduce turbidity, trap suspended sediments (increasing photosynthetic pot. + carbon sequestration

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57
Q

what are the adaptations of seagrasses due to lower light

A

have a thin, porous cuticle to absorb CO2 , large gas lacunae, single layer chloroplasts in epidermis, grow >20m generally

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58
Q

ow much carbon burial is seagrass responsible for

A

10-12% (~0.2% coverage)

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59
Q

what is the seagrass ecosystem threatened by

A

fungal wasting disease, physical damage, coastal development + reduced water quality

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60
Q

what challenges must seagrass overcome

A

submergence, CO2 limitations and O2 limitations in sediments

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61
Q

what are the subdivisions of the rocky shore

A

supra littoral, eulittoral and sublittoral

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62
Q

why is the rocky shore important

A

high species diversity and habitat complexity, + lots of interspecific competitions

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63
Q

what was a test for interspecific competitions

A

removal of Balanus that then favorured Chthamalus growth

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64
Q

what are the gradients of the rocky shore

A

wet-dryness, wave action, particle size + salinity

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65
Q

what conditions allow organisms to live in the upper limit (high intertidal) in the rocky shore

A

its mobile, has a shell and has high metabolic rates

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66
Q

what pressures influence the lower limit (low intertidal) in the rocky shore

A

competition and predation

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67
Q

how is wave action determied

A

fetch + wind that drives period, height + swell

68
Q

what strategies do species have to overcome wave action

A

timing, positioning, burrowing, attachment (byssal threads or cementing)

69
Q

what physical and biological factors drive zonation in the rocky shore

A

desiccation tolerance + competition, niche partitioning, physical + biological forces

70
Q

what are ht functional groups of primary producers in the rocky shore

A

microalgae (biofilms+diatoms), simple algae, complex algae (red, green,brown), encrusting algae (calcifies)

71
Q

what are the functional groups of the grazers within the rocky shore

A

sweepers (topshells), rakers (isopods), diggers+abraders (urchins), biters+cutters (fish+crabs)

72
Q

what are the functional groups of the suspension feeders within the rocky shore

A

individual - strainers (barnacles), siphonal (musses) and colonial (bryozoans+sponge)

73
Q

what are the functional groups of the predators within the rocky shore

A

borers+drillers (whelks), crushers+crackers(non-grapsid crabs), external digesters(starfish), browsers+partial predators(nudibranchs), mobile vertebrates(fish+birds), sit+wait(anenomes+hydroids)

74
Q

how is the rocky shore defined

A

by gradients and resource partitioning

75
Q

why does the rocky shore have a high species diversity

A

large habitat complexity (niches) and abundance of food

76
Q

what are basking sharks threatened by

A

trawling bycatch, line entanglement, propellor strikes + people harassment, plastic ingestion

77
Q

what are the 8 main marine invertebrates

A

porifera, cnidaria, Ctenophora, polychaete, Mollusca, echinodermata, crustacea, hemichordata

78
Q

what roles do marine invertebrates play in ecosystem functioning

A

secondary production, nutrient recycling, habitat structure, grazing + predation

79
Q

what are the 2 forms of cnidaria

A

medusa and polyp

80
Q

why are detritus-feeding polychaete a keystone species

A

important food source for flatfish and wading birds + burrow causing bioturbation (increases nutrients)

81
Q

why are muscles good ecosystem engineers

A

they provide habitats for cryptic fauna, protected from wave action + thermal stress, trap sediments, stabilising mud + enhance habitat heterogenity+ species diversity (increases ecosystem diversity)

82
Q

what are the general characteristics of nekton

A

larger body size, greater swing power, mostly vertebrates, mostly fish

83
Q

what is the importance of nekton

A

large influences on marine communities, important in current/historical harvests, + important to world food supply

84
Q

what is the vertical distribution of ocean zones and which types of species are found

A

mesopelgaic -epipelagic (countershading present), bathypelagic-holoepipelagic (shark), abyssopelagic-meroepipelagic (herring, salmon)

85
Q

what are the morphology of mesopelagic fish

A

<10cm, well developed teeth + large mouths, large, light-sensitive eyes, photophores

86
Q

hat is the morphology of abyssal pelagic fish

A

species-specific pattens of photophores, small with flabby, soft transparent flesh supported with weak bones, oversized mouth

87
Q

what are the sub-classes of cephalopods and the superorders

A

Natuiloidea, Coleoidea: superorder Decapodiformes (squid+cuttlefish) + Octopodiformes (octopus and vampire squid)

88
Q

what are the features of elasmobranch (sharks)

A

dermal denticles, 57 gill cleft openings, small, placid scales, rigid dorsal fins, cartilaginous, highly varied + both benthic and pelagic

89
Q

unlike all other fish, elasmobranchs don’t have swim bladders, how do they control depth

A

with pectoral fins, using dynamic lift (like helicopter) and gliding on downward trajectory

90
Q

what makes seabirds different from terrestrial birds

A

webbed feet, strong sense of smells, partly-wetable plumage, less colourful, increased melanism in wing tips

91
Q

differences between dolphins and porpoises

A

body: more streamlined vs smaller + more stout. Rostrum: longer vs blunt. Dorsal fin: falcate vs triangular+smaller. Teeth: pointy vs blunt

92
Q

what features make nekton have predictable environments

A

iteroparous (return to grounds), long-lived, delayed maturity, low-reproductive rates, migratory

93
Q

which nekton are semelparous

A

cephalopods

94
Q

what are the adaptations of deep-water nekton

A

detrivores/carnivores, bioluminescence (photophores), large sensitive eyes, large sharp teeth, expandable bodies, hinged jaws, counterillumination

95
Q

what are the features of marine reptiles

A

ectothermic, covered in scaled, have specialised slat glands (excrete excess salt)

96
Q

what are the differences in seals and seal lions

A

seals: lack prominent ear flaps, smaller front flippers, fore flipper claws, different hip structures, wiggle and sea lions waddle

97
Q

what is the defining feature of Carnivora

A

prominent canine teeth

98
Q

what is the defining feature of Sirenia (manntees+dugongs)

A

herbivores

99
Q

what are the characteristics of Cetacea

A

elongated skulls with blowholes, few hairs and fluked tails (horizontal)

100
Q

what adaptations do Cetacea have

A

large tails + streamlined body + special skin structure (fast swimming), low O2 use (deep diving), collapsible lungs, store lots of O2

101
Q

causes for migration

A

food requirements (patchy resources +long time to learn to hunt)

102
Q

why is conserving nekton difficult

A

they travel large migratory routes that requires global efforts “conserving a moving target” and they’re extremely overexploited but have a high longevity (if lost, very slow recovery) + vulnerable to bycatch

103
Q

why are fisheries not even distributed

A

high coastal poductivity (upwelling + nutrient flow-ins) + easy access

104
Q

what are the types of nets for fishing

A

angling, hand-line, demersal long line, floating longline, set nets, drift nets, purse seine, bottom otter trawl and pelagic trawl

105
Q

what are examples of artisinal/ small scale fishing

A

freediving, remonas, fish traps, cycanide fishing, dynamite bombing, lobster pot, cast nets, spear fishing

106
Q

whats an example of the consequence of overfishing

A

cod stocks in Newfoundlands, 1960s, dramatically decrease in size, use to be <2m long

107
Q

what are the 4 reasons overfishing occurs

A

tradegy of the commons, fishing down the foodweb, shifting baselines, hope spots

108
Q

what are mechanisms used to improve fish stocks

A

time-area closures, zoning, quotas, gear modification, MPAs and aquaculture

109
Q

whart are the different types of aquaculture

A

whole life (salmon), early juvenile only (scallop/lobster), most of lie (mussel), later juvenile only (tuna), ongoing harvest (algae)

110
Q

what are the 8 key attributes to aquaculture

A

desirability/marketability, uncomplicated reproduction, hardiness, high growth rate, readily met food requirements, readily met habitat environments, monoculture/polyculture, minimal ecological impacts (from feed/waste/invasives/pollution)

111
Q

what are the negative sides of aquaculture

A

doesn’t meet full demand (still catching in open ocean), need to catch fish for food for managed fish, eutrophication+mangrove removal, bycatch, very complicated to manage eg. if no fishing, bushmeat increases, environmental damage, waste disposal issues

112
Q

what are the advantages of fisheries

A

renewable resource, food security, employment, cultural identity

113
Q

what are the characteristics of turtles

A

reptiles, long-lived, natal philopatry, site fidelity, migratory?navigate, temperature-dependant sex determination

114
Q

what turtle eats jellyfish

A

leatherback, flatback

115
Q

which turtle eats sponges

A

hawksbill

116
Q

what turtles eat crabs

A

kemp’s ridley

117
Q

which turtle is herbivorous

A

green turtles

118
Q

which turtle is data-deficient

A

flatback turtle (N.Austrailia)

119
Q

which turtles are the most endangered

A

CE: Kemp’s Ridley (only nests in Mexico) and CE: Hawksbill (hunted for shell)

120
Q

how long do turtles live for

A

not known ,only can base upon return to nesting sites

121
Q

how do turtles navigate

A

hatchlings orient self to moonlight and downward slope + perpendicular to waves (magnetic orientation[learned behaviour])

122
Q

which turtle is the deepest diver

A

loggerhead, <10.2hrs (longest), leatherback >1,000m (deepest)

123
Q

how do turtles reproduce

A

they store sperm and lay eggs with GSD (female bias)

124
Q

what are the 3 families of the sub-order Pinnipedia

A

Odobenidae, Otariidae, Phocidae

125
Q

what are the differences between phocidae (seals) and otariidae (sea lions)

A

movement: hindflippers + wiggle vs foreflippers, + can walk. Ear: no external ear vs external ear. Breeding: capital vs income, size: larger vs smaller. Scratch: fore flippers vs hind flippers

125
Q

what are the characteristics of Pinnipeds

A

found in all major oceans (+freshwater), have amphibious lifestyle, most numerous marine mammal

126
Q

what is the life history of pinnipeds

A

need land to moult, then at sea, then breed + pregnancy (delayed implantation), then return to sea

127
Q

what are the factors of capital breeders

A

have single long trips, economic foraging strategy (phocidae) provisioning: short lactation, fasts during it, rapid pup growth

128
Q

what are the factors of income breeders

A

multiple short trips, depend high energy to obtain high energy (Otariid) provisioning: long lactation, feeds during it, slow pup growth

129
Q

what Pinniped has the shortest lactaion period

A

hooded (4 days 60% fat) and Harp (12 days 48% fat)

130
Q

what is the general diet of Pinnipeds

A

fish + squid (exceptions: walrus, crabeater + leopard)

131
Q

how do walrus feed/prey

A

bottom feeders, eat benthic prey (>600 clams/day), find with vibrissae, stir up sediment

132
Q

what are Pinnipeds threatened by

A

bycatch, climate change, competition, zoonotic events

133
Q

why are seabird important

A

ecosystem engineers (bring nutirents to islands + regulate plankton+ guano deposits), ocean sentinels (indicate ocean health)

134
Q

how many seabirds are there globally

A

~0.7 bn

135
Q

what are the characteristics of Bluefin Tuna

A

large + commercially-exploitable, endothermic, complex spatial dynamics (fishing pressures, climate + recruitment)

136
Q

what are tunas spawning behaviours

A

time: 0-sunrise. depth: shallow <25m. temp: warm ~25C (chase + cross thermocline continuously)

137
Q

why is marine biodiversity important

A

protect coastal communities from storms + erosion, tourism, commercial fish habitat (estuaries+seagrass), produce 1/2 O2 + carbon sinks, natural filters (saltmarshes+mangroves), provide jobs (at fisheries), new medicine (reefs)

138
Q

what are the drivers of biodiversity loss

A

overexploitation, climate change, invasive species, pollution, habitat degradation

139
Q

why is bycatch difficult to define

A

there’s multiple defs as some consider only size and age of sqme species as bycatch, others different species and some unused/unmanaged species. and some are unharmed, released or some have injuries or are killed

140
Q

wat are the physical changes to the marine environment from climate change

A

ocean acidificaiton, ocean freshening, increasing desertification, increasing air temp, extreme events, slowing thermocline circulation, sea level rise, increasing sea temps, ozone depletion, melting land-ice

141
Q

what are the challenges of marine conservation

A

expensive as difficult to access and monitor. difficult to find life history, abundance and distribution + socio-economic drivers fo human behaviours

142
Q

how can invasive species be introducee

A

shipping (taking water into hull), aquaculture, canal constructing, aquarium trade, live seafood trade

143
Q

how many marine species are considered by the ICUN to be data deficient

A

21%

144
Q

how do we reduce threats in marine environments through conservation

A

quantify threats, understand impacts, need data + evidence for conservation

145
Q

what ways can we reduce bycatch

A

increase stocks via recruitment (legalise), set limits, good governance, protection+mangament, education+awareness, time area closures, BRT, buy outs (eg nets that allow turtles through)

146
Q

what are the biodiversity conventions

A

Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (2022) and Protected PLanet website (UNEP-WCMC)

147
Q

what is the problem with large-scale MPAs

A

political (winner in MPA size), don’t consider patchiness and migration corridors or arent target-orientated, takes away areas that are biodiversity hotspots and need to be protected

148
Q

how are people made aware of MPAs and conservation

A

work with local educatoras, campaigns, lobbying (blue planet)

149
Q

what are the main categories of marine pollution

A

toxic substances, solid waste (plastic debris), sewage+eutrophication, warm water noises, noise, light

150
Q

what are the 2 types of pollution discharge

A

acute (oil spill), chronic (year-round sewage)

151
Q

what are the 2 types of pollution sources

A

point (discrete entry) and diffuse (variety of entries)

152
Q

what are the 2 types of marine pollution effects

A

acute (oiling) and chronic (changes in community structure)

153
Q

what are the types of toxic substances founding marine pollution

A

heavy metals, POPs, CO2 and PAHs

154
Q

what are the effects on heavy metals in the ocean

A

methyl-mercury bioaccumulation (minimata disease), denatures proteins, binds to blood pigments, effects renal function

155
Q

what are the effects of POPs on the ocean

A

slow degradation, biomag+accum, carcinomas, reproductive failure, impacts on immune, endocrine +nervous system functioning

156
Q

what are the effects of PAHs on the ocean

A

Oil fouling, cascades, PHAs (cancer), toxic (chemical dispersants)

157
Q

what are the effects of CO2 on the ocean

A

decreased seawater pH, reduced CaCO3 for crusteacea, increased sea temps (coral bleaching+glacial melt)

158
Q

what are the effects of plastics on the ocean

A

ingestion, chemical contamination, entanglement

159
Q

what are the effects of nitrogen on the ocean

A

eutrophication (anoxia), harmful algal blooms (red tides causing poisoning)

160
Q

what are the effects of noise pollution on the ocean

A

hearing damage, stress, behavioural changes, distrubance, masking

161
Q

what are the effects of thermal pollution on the ocean

A

kills species, replace PP, increase alien species

162
Q

what are the effects of light pollution on the ocean

A

disruption o movement patterns, greater exposure to other threats, reduced reproductive success

163
Q

why is ascension island s focus in terms of MPAs

A

large sea turtle nesting spot, part of British overseas terretories

164
Q

How are threats to fish found out in terms of MPA set up

A

look at fish bycatch, satelite tracking (residency), seamount surveys, BRUVS, look at seabirds

165
Q

what are the issues to set up MPAs

A

must be more profitable than other strategies + could be a paper park or “blue belt” for politics.

Marine Biology (3 decks)

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