Term Test 1

Question 1

Kanto region

Answer 1

Apart of east central Japan, the largest plain in the country, access to waterways and fertile farmland, Tokugawa rulers developed Edo along the coast, Edo eventually became Tokyo, becoming a political and economic hub, very developed region.

Question 2

kami

Answer 2

The shinto divinites, many were linked to agricultural and local community in life. worshipped in small shrines throughout the land, festivals and rituals, preserving purity and life in human society, other kami were protectors, of poweful political families
- (the imperial family claimed sun goddess Amaterasu as their protector)

Question 3

Shinto

Answer 3

(The way of the Gods), maintain a connection with kami and foster purity, balance and prosperity in life,
used for the first time in the eighth century to describe a diverse set of earlier ritual observances and sacred sites, these divinities were called Kami(see #2), became overshadowed by Buddhism and confucianism but in the Meiji period was used to established national unity.

Question 4

Buddhism

Answer 4

Born in South Asia, in the fifth century B.C.E, flourishing it reached china and spread to korea who then introduced it to the Japanese, stressed suffering was pivotal to human life, mediation, prayers to higher powers, reached a high point in Japan.
Broke down into the Zen tradition, extended its social reach into the countrysides, among warriors, commoners, temples were used to keep track of population, vibrant cultural force and a important political force.

Question 5

Trifunctional Elite

Answer 5

A term from the medieval period, 1.Samuri, 2. Courts/Commoners, 3. Buddhist Temples. Each one of these three classes served an important service for the Tokugawa regime,
Warrior, service/production, religious influence

Question 6

Oda Nobunaga (1534-1582)

Answer 6

The first “so-called” unifier of the 250 years free of war period, embarked on a ruthless campaign of terror, destroyed buddhist strongholds, killed thousands of monks, burning libraries, not remembered kindly by historians but fashioned political institutions that helped sustain the long piece period, tax collection system, conducted systematic surveys of the land, began to establish the failry sharp class boundary between samurai and farmers, got murdered.

Question 7

Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536-1598)

Answer 7

a lieutenant of Nobunaga, took over after this death, a brilliant political strategist but unliked, pursued alliances, accepted oaths of loyalty from his enemies, extended domain over all of Japan by 1591, launched two bad invasions of Korea, turned against the Jesuit missionaries that were in Japan, at his death daimyo extended over all of Japan.

Question 8

Tokugawa Ieyasu

Answer 8

(the first, Tokugawa ruler) Born 1543, Ieyasu served as Shogun from 1603-1606. Built up a massive support system and grabbed power when a vacuum filled the position. A harsh ruler, retired after a short rule, giving power to his son, who he led from the shadows till his death in 1616.

Question 9

Bakufu

Answer 9

A military government or a tent government, first government regime was in the 1180’s, in the town of Kamakura, usually the emperor is introduced to provide legitimacy to the regime, then accepted the title the shogun.

Question 10

Edo

Answer 10

Edo Period (1600-1868)
-250 years of peace, military governments led by the shogunate’s, stable, isolated, and a increase in culture, the city included the Yoshiwara pleasure districts, kabuku theatres, brothels.

Edo (Present-day Tokyo)
-Begining after the meiji restoration, Edo was changed into Tokyo and attracted many merchants as well as other groups, growing Tokyo into the culturalal, economic, and poltical hub it is today.

Question 11

Samurai class

Answer 11

The term ssamurai refers to Japan’s warriors, a diverse group that figures prominently in japans history. Early samuri come into the historians focus around the tenth century, served aristrocratic families in the capitol or the imperial court, bow and arrow was weapon of choice, later achieved equailty with and then hegemony over the aristocracy. Established the first military government, eventually led the charge for the Meiji Restoration.

Question 12

commoners

Answer 12

divided into several subgroups, must register with a Buddhist temple, a ban on Christianity was pushed on the commoners. Needed permission to travel. Class includes, farmer, merchant or artisan. As the meiji restoration took place, the social classes began to dissolve, which led to more rights.

Question 13

domains

Answer 13

during the Edo period, a territory ruled by a daimyo, served as units of governance, economy, and military organization outside of the shogunate, agriculture system of payments by rice to the domains farmers, the system was abolished during the meiji restoration but retained specific cultural identities.

Question 14

daimyo

Answer 14

Military Leaders of cohesive bands of warriors, were in charge of the domains each of which had the ability to muster up its own army, daimyo are pivotal because a select few would go on to begin the process of unification for Japan. Were the first group that the Tokugawa regime went to control and organize/ bring under rule.

Question 15

system of alternate attendance

Answer 15

An extremely important practice, a step to finalize hegemony over rivals, required daimyo to attend the captial of Kyoto so an eye could be kept on these lords, eveutally became to maintain residencies in Edo. Created “hostage neighborhoods of daimyos, effective political control, also weakend them economically as it cost large sums of money to travel, cut ties between the daimyo and his community.

Question 16

castle towns

Answer 16

urban settlements that were developed around castles in the feudal period of Japan, served as centers of governance and military power for the ruling daimyo, the towns were eventually dissolved under the Meiji Restoration, but were important military and economic hubs in their time.

Question 17

Nagasaki

Answer 17

a population hub and massive trade hub in the early Edo period, was home to the Dutch traders that conducted business, dutch language learning occured in Nagasaki, helped to establish ties between Japan and the Western World.

Question 18

Osaka

Answer 18

A massive population center and commercial hub, economy driven by a dozen of Japans leading rice traders, handled turning rice as taxes into cash, river was jammed with merchants ships, massive entertainment quarters, one of the most important cities during the period.

Question 19

Kyoto

Answer 19

Known as the cultural heart of Japan, served as the imperial capital from 794-1868, contains a lot of Japans temples and shrines, kept its cultural power even though the capitol was moved by the shogunate, has tons of festivals, culturally one of the most important cities in japans history

Question 20

Yoshiwara

Answer 20

Included the Pleasure Quarters. Established by the shogunate in 1617 to help regulate the sex trade, essentially the red light district of Edo, known for brothels, Kabuki theaters, music and included courtesans, and the rise of arts, like woodblock prints

Question 21

kabuki

Answer 21

a form of Japanese theater, known for elaborate costumes and combining drama and music for their performances.
Women were banned from doing this kind of theatre, but it grew with female costumes for men as they became the shining highlight, challenged the roles of gender identity, this type of theatre was acted out in the pleasure quarters. Different role types, costumes and masks depend on your role, has spread to be a global influence.

Question 22

National Learning

Answer 22

known as Kokugaku it was an intellectual movement that emerged during the Edo Period, its goal was to rediscover Japans indigenous culture basically return to the country’s roots, also was a counter balance Confucianism and Buddhism, this learning examined shinto scripts,

Question 23

Neo-Confucianism

Answer 23

Japanese buddhist priests traveled to china and brought back a new development, an interpretation that stressed the importance of direct reading of the classic chinese texts of ancient times, in Tokugawa times it became an important cultural and political force.

Question 24

silk-for-sliver trade

Answer 24

a major economic system in the Edo period, it contributed to the interactions between Japan and western nations, silk produced in large amounts in Koshu, sliver was highly valued in Japan as it was used to make currency, this early trade system led to developments of trading systems as Japan began to modernize. Trade declined after the Edo period, it can be seen in Japan’s rich textile industry’s today.

Question 25

Tsushima domain

Answer 25

a domain during the Edo period, was a major factor in trading with Korea, trade included rice and other goods, could be seen as a mediator between the two nations. Its historical ties between Korea and Japan define it today.

Question 26

sakoku interpretation

Answer 26

meaning closed-country, was Japan's foreign relations policy for the Edo period, wanted to isolate Japan from the rest of the world, limited foreign trade, banned Christianity, only allowed interactions with certain nations, believed it would maintain stability in the nation, Japanese art flourished but tech and trade improvements were stagnant, is usually seen as a defensive maneuver.

Question 27

outcastes

Answer 27

People who were subject to societys scorn including prostitues and various other groups of outcastes,. senmin - This is the term that encompasses the outcaste groups which were divided into Burakumin, Hinin, and Eta, basically are the lowest and most marginalized class in feudal hierarchy. hinin - Nonpersons, included criminals assigned to jobs such as ragpicking

Question 28

koku

Answer 28

the amount of rice annually required to feed adult male, also use to indicate wealth as a measure of taxation for a daimyo under the feudal system. During the edo period the wealth and power of a daimyo were measured by how many kokus were produced annually, also tied to samurai's stipens, higher ranking got paid more. shows how the wealth poewr and social structure were tied to agricultural abilities.

Question 29

Lords

Answer 29

A more generic term to describe a daimyo during the edo period, who were most often referred to as lord by their people, a lord is a landowner while daimyo is a specific term for the feudal lords.

Question 30

Samurai ideal of martial and literary skills

Answer 30

martial (military) skills -Male and female samuri were expected to prepare for potential conflicts, having skills with bow and bladed weapons, more important during the warring states period Literary skills -Patrons of the arts, lords competed to have best implements for tea ceremony, these became more important during the peace period of edo, also enjoy literature and poetry

Question 31

seppuku

Answer 31

a practice known as ritual suicide, samurai are supposed to have above all loyalty to their daimyo. Before Edo period, samurai committed ritual suicide to atone for their mistakes or on order from their lord. sometimes a samurai found guilty of a crime were allowed to commit seppuku instead of execution

Question 32

Yamamoto Tsunetomo (1659-1719)

Answer 32

(1659-1719) The Author of Hagakure (The Book of the Samurai) -loyalty, duty, honor, way of the samurai is found in death, zen, stoicism -one of the most widely known texts, he served as a retainer in the saga domain of kyushu, following his lords death he became a buddhist monk, dedicated his life to samuri ethics and philosophy,

Question 33

Ukiyo

Answer 33

a concept known as the Floating World, which referred to the ephemeral entertainments of the world of brothels and theaters which flourished during the Edo period in cities such as edo, kyoto, and osaka, this description defined the social life at the time.

Question 34

Ukiyo-e

Answer 34

Images of the Floating World usually done in wood-block prints, the prints included famous courtesans and star kabuki actors and were produced in mass numbers, artists also focused on landscape pictures with these prints. Represents another way that the floating world was apart of tokugawa culture.

Question 35

kabuki and puppet theatres

Answer 35

kabuki- began as a means by which prositutes, male and female, drew crowds who might be enticed to purchase sexual services as well. Performances were often held in outdoor theatres in dry riverbeds alongside carnival entertainment. Puppet theatre- performers were puppets of roughly two-thirds life size, up to three man manipulated each puppet, singers and talented writers developed the shows

Question 36

Onnagata

Answer 36

female role assumed by male kabuki actors as females were banned from performing, an inspiring idea in the realm of gender studies.

Question 37

Yoshiwara Pleasure Quarters

Answer 37

-edo period red light district established as a center to control the sex trade, also has teahouses, inn, and brothels. had all kinds of clients, high and low class, became an inspiration for artists, as japan began to modernize these practices began to diminish.

Question 38

tayu

Answer 38

rich courtesans, but the highest ranking ones, full of beauty and elegance as well as artistic skills, underwent a lot of trainings, had great appearances and fashion, they were cultural icons, most famous ones were put on wood-prints

Question 39

teahouses

Answer 39

the level of teahouses varied from simple to luxury teahouses but both were a apart of the pleasure quarters, the houses had social gatherings and entrainment venues, the houses also had an economic impact in Edo

Question 40

geisha

Answer 40

traditional Japanese female entertainers, dance music, icons of Japan, colorful kimonos, extensive training required to become one, male and females geisha but females are more common, played a part in the pleasure districts more as entertainers. represents an important part of Japan's cultural heritage.

Question 41

senryu

Answer 41

type of poetry, simiilar to haiku but focuses more on human emtoions and everyday life rather than nature. emerged during the edo period, gain a lot of popularity among commoners, helps to celebrate literary tradition in Japan.

Question 42

Meiji Restoration

Answer 42

(1868), marked the end of the Edo period, restored imperial rule under emperor meiji, considred an aristocratic revolution, bloodless revolution, this point marked a complete pivot in japanese history to a modern nation-state, included political reforms, social and cultural reforms and economic modernization, brought an western influence, and nationalism, this restoration lead to modern day japan.

Question 43

bakumatsu

Answer 43

1853-1867, what is know as the the final stage of Tokugawa rule, faced foreign pressure, shogunate began to lose legitimacy, social unrest led to the rise of the meiji restoration, this period set up sweeping changes for the restoration.

Question 44

sea cucumbers

Answer 44

Became an item of trade as sliver was running out in Japan, they were a delicacy in china as well as used for medicines so Japan was able to trade them in bunches to China as a alternate to slive ignot currency.

Question 45

Ezo

Answer 45

refers to the indigenous peoples and regions of Hokkaido which it became called after 1869, the northern territories were not fully integrated into japan during the edo period. The Ainu people lives there and had a very different culture than the rest of japan, more hunter and gathers, Ainu people still having issues with the Japanese government.

Question 46

Canton

Answer 46

served as a gateway for cultural exchanges between Japan and China, trade flourished japanese merchants and scholars engaged with elements of chinese culture. As japan in the meiji period opened its ports more, there was more action between canton.

Question 47

Sliver

Answer 47

described as mexican coins, sliver in the seventeeth centuray was japans most important export, japanese sliver mines accounted as one third of global sliver output in the early seventeenth century, was very important economic influx.

Question 48

Boston Traders

Answer 48

American Merchants, that began trading late in the Edo period and picked up during the Meiji restoration, played a pivotal role in the relationship between Japan and America. Economic growth and cultural exchange, occurred with the increase in trade of foreign goods.

Question 49

whaling

Answer 49

an industry that united Japan and the western world, the growing American economy needed whales for lamps and lubricant which brought many u.s ships to the waters surrounding japan, Whaling helped to advance the merging of the west and and japanese cultures and histories during meiji restoration.

Question 50

Opium War

Answer 50

Occurred in China, 1839-1842, china out strict bans on opium, British were pissed and sent military to china, led to a humilation loss by china the signing of a long treaty. The war impacted Japan by having them sign trade treaties as they were worried about the military action taken towards China, these pressures however lead to a weakened shogun and the inability to build strength.

Question 51

Matthew C. Perry

Answer 51

(1794-1858), carried a message as he reached Japan, agree to trade in peace or suffer war, perry led this expedition to open trade to the western world. a treaty was signed that allowed for coal to be sold to U.S merchant ships as well as the United states creating a port, the treaties that were signed ended up having bad economic consequences.

Question 52

President Millard Fillmore

Answer 52

(1800-1874), was the president that sent perry to Japan to establish a trade route. He played a pivotal role in opening Japan to international trade. His actions ended isolation in Japan and led to the meiji restoration.

Question 53

Townsend Harris

Answer 53

(1804-1878), the first american consul took up residence in Shimoda on the southern tip of the Izu peninsula in 1856. Harris demanded a trade treaty with a threat that the british would give a worse deal, the treaty that was signed was similar to the opium war treaty, the treaty was very bad in Japans favor.

Question 54

US-Japan Treaty of Amity and Commerce

Answer 54

(1858), known as the harris treaty, expanded on the treaty of kanagawa opening more ports of trade, american citizens were not subject to Japanese laws, tariff autonomy. The treaty weakned japans stabilty as well as caused a rise of nationalism, tokugawas legtimacy waned.

Question 55

Tenpo famines

Answer 55

(1830s) series of famines during the Tenpo era, climate and environmental factors, crop failures, starvation, economic disruption, daiymos tried to help but were very ineffective, led to social crisis's.

Question 56

Oshio Heihachiro

Answer 56

(1793-1837) a samurai of low rank in the osaka city government, schooled in Confucian thought, stressed importance of righteous individual action, officials ignored his pleas to help people, led a uprising of osaka residents, burned town one fourth of the city before being put down.

Question 57

opening of treaty ports(1859)

Answer 57

eight ports were opened to trade, japan surrendered tariff autonomy, and legal jurisdiction over the treaty ports, tariffs on goods leaving and entering were set prices, the opening of these ports worked to establish japanese natiolism and the feelings of "One Japan", the ports led to violent protests.

Question 58

sonno joi

Answer 58

loyalist movement, that emerged as a reaction to the increasing western influence, the unequal treates and the decline of the shogunante mixed a desire to resist forgein infleunce led to the creation of the movement, aligned with other domain the movement was an important piece of the collapse of the shogunate.

Question 59

shishi

Answer 59

men of high purpose, the loyalist samurai class, propelled events forward with acts of political terror aimed at domestic opponents or foreign enemies. most were young men from middle to low ranks who wanted to propose problems to solutions.

Question 60

satsuma domain

Answer 60

one of the most powerful and influential domains, played an important role in the downfall of the shogunate and the meiji restoration. One of the richer domains, ruled by a prominent family. Became a stronghold of anti-tokugawa sentiment, had an alliance with the choshu domain, played a key role in the boshin war, helped to usher in the Meiji Restoration.

Question 61

Bombardment of Kagoshima

Answer 61

a pivotal Part of the Anglo-Satsuma War, 1863, occurred between britain and the satsuma domain, this conflict came from the death of a british merchant, britian ending up winning but satsuma put up a fight, a treaty was signed and the cooperation between the groups improved. This moment adds to the complex relationship between Japan and the Western Powers.

Question 62

Choshu domain

Answer 62

important domain, helped to tear down the shogun, ruled by the mori clan, rich in rice and salt, became involved in the Sonno Joi movement, was apart of the alliance that overthrew the shogun.

Question 63

Battle of Shimonoseki Straits

Answer 63

a moment of the Bakan War, 1863-1864, a naval battle between western forces and the choshu domain, attacks on american ships led to the battle marked one of the first major direct enganments between japan and western powers, led to the alliance and showed that japan could not out last western powers.

Question 64

Ito Hirobumi

Answer 64

(1841-1909), a statesmen that served as japans first prime minister, helping draft the meiji constitution, a choshu domain samurai who left japan to go study in england, these ideals led to japans governmetnal structure and japan emerging as a world power.

Question 65

kobu gattai

Answer 65

the Alliance of bakufu and court, wanted to preserve stability in japan, basically in response to the loyalist movement that wanted to take down the shogun, failed leading to the boshin war.

Question 66

Aizu Domain

Answer 66

located in the mountaninous region of northern honshu, very farmer forward economy, were attacked in the siege of aizu and had to surrender, many of their samuri were exiled, their history became popular in culture, serves as a reminder of the complex decisions a domain who is home to shiba goro,

Question 67

Sakamoto Ryoma

Answer 67

(1836-1867), a reformer who is marked by idealism and a early death. Was healviy infleunced by western ideas that called for democracy and modern governance, involved with the pro-japan movement, helped to create the alliance, advocated for change and a new government proposal, an early death from a political rival.

Question 68

Tokugawa Yoshinobu

Answer 68

(1837-1913), last shogun of japan, 1866-1868, tried some reform and modernize the military but faced resistance against satsuma and choshu, formally resigned following the end of the boshin war, by stepping down he represented the end of the 250 year rule.

Question 69

Ee ja nai ka

Answer 69

"isn't it good?", popular movement during the late edo period to social unrest and political turmoil. Included festivals and celebrations, popular dances, religious influences, a way for people to voice thier dissatisfaction with the status quo, more of a cultural phenomenon

Question 70

Emperor Meiji

Answer 70

(Ruled from 1867-1912) -he was put at the center of political order, a constitutional monarcy, industrialization, and adoption of western technologies, wanted a modern education systems, and to re-look at these unfair treaties, seen as the symbol of japans modernization and becoming a world power, helped to shape the national identity.

Question 71

Meiji oilgarchs

Answer 71

a group of leaders who helped to play a big role in the transformation of japan during the meiji restoration, helped to put forward reforms that modernized japan. Centralization of power and certain reforms like a new tax system that helped to dissolve the feudal system, key architects of Modern Japan.

Question 72

tennosei

Answer 72

emperor centered system, the emperor is the sovereign and symbolic leader of the nation, the emperor has a divivne right as ruler in ancient japan, the meiji restoration re-established the emperors power.

Question 73

imperial rescripts

Answer 73

formal proclamations issued by the Japanese emperor, these proclamations outlined many polices and helped to affirm the emperors authority in the Meiji era. rescripts came down on education, establishment of the constitution.../

Question 74

Iwakura Mission

Answer 74

(1871-1873),several dozen people including some powerful figures from the new government spent eighteen months traveling through the united states and Europe, they observed all manner of institution's and practices from schools and factories to parliaments. The economic power of modern industry and the social power of educated citizens of subjects of the western national state impressed the mission members profoundly. motivated the transition to western practices.

Question 75

subject to citizen

Answer 75

shows the shift represents the change in how individuals viewed their relationship with the states, under the feudal system they saw themselves as subjects but under the meiji restoration they began to view themselves more as citizens, which was delivered with the constitution of 1889. This included civic and legal participations. It gave way to modern Japanese citizenship

Question 76

End of domains, establishment of prefectures

Answer 76

(1871) -the end of domains marked the end of the feudal system officially, as Han system was abolished the transitions to prefectures to place, began with 72 later consolidated to 47, each one governed by a prefect who was appointed by the central government. Allowed for standards to be brought across the country and the centralization of power.

Question 77

civilization and enlightment

Answer 77

concepts in the Meiji era, civilization refers to the process that modern japan adopting western tech and other practices with influence of the west and other meiji reforms. Enlightment refers to the movement in europe that allowed for individualism and the pursuit of knowledge. Its impact in japan is seen in the emphasis of critical thinking. Achieved through government initiatives and cultural transformations

Question 78

rich country, strong army

Answer 78

a guiding principle for japans government strategy in the meiji period. Involves economic modernization and military modernization, this principle led to national unity and japan as an emergence as a world power.

Question 79

good wife, wise mother

Answer 79

a social ideal in the meiji restoration, worked in influence gender roles in Japanese society. Good wife- womens roles in the household and supporting their husbands, traditional roles Wise mother- importance of education and moral upbringing for children, also wanted women to be educated themselves. The saying played a large part in shaping gender roles throughout japan

Question 80

industrialization

Answer 80

massive amounts occurred during the meiji era, it marked a transition from an agrarian economy to one dominated by industry and manufacturing. Western influence brought new tech which led to development of key industries. Textile, mining, and manufacturing. Massive economic growth and cultural transformation and infrastructure.

Question 81

silk, tea, coal

Answer 81

all three of these exports played a major role, silk was a primary export during the meiji period which led to massive tech advancements tea, emphasis on green tea was very popular in the United states, midwest coal, was the perfered coal for steam ships and it burned longer, the mining industry grew in bounds in japan. These three exports supported japan into a national power.

Question 82

Tomioka Silk Mill

Answer 82

located in the Gunma prefecture in 1872, seen as the first modern silk mill in the country. an effort to modernize the industry in japan, it also trained many women works who became an integral part of the economy. Without the mill the silk industry in Japan would never has been as dominate as it was at its peak, leading japan to be a top silk producer.

Question 83

Coal and copper mines

Answer 83

both pivotal to japans modernization, coal was used to power the industry and trade value,the miike coal mine was known for its large scale production copper overtook silver as the main precious metal for trade. Ashio copper mine became one of the largest copper producers in japan Both mines were integral to japans industrialization efforts.

Question 84

zaibatsu

Answer 84

family controlled busniess family that played a large role in japans economy from late 19th to end of WWII. a vertically integrated business conglomerates that controlled the meiji periods economy. helped to developed key industries such as textiles, after WWII the allies dissolved them.

Question 85

Mitsubishi

Answer 85

one of the most prominent and influential zaibatsu in japans histroy, evolved into a major global corporation in various industries. founded as a mail steamship company, lead to one of japans leading industrial conglomerates with interest in various sectors including steamships and mining. played a large role in developing japans economy.

Question 86

burakumin

Answer 86

descendants of Edo period outcasts, they were associated with occupations that were impure or unclean, even though the meiji restoration worked to erase this sort of prejudice but it insisted. There has been movements that led to rights gained as well as cultural representation of the peoples in later Japanese culture and active education.

Question 87

Ainu

Answer 87

(ethic group of Hakkaido), they are associated with the northern regions of Hokkadio, they have faced cultural supression at the hands of the japanese as well as lost of rights.

Question 88

Freedom and Popular Rights Movement

Answer 88

a movement in the 1880's and 1890's which aimed to promote civil liberties and democratic governance, trying to establish a parliamentary system. Influenced by western ideas it created various political groups and public demonstrations. The movement lost steam but its influence persisted.

Question 89

Meiji Constitution

Answer 89

(1889), it established a constituional framework for goverance and reflecting the countrys effort to modernize and accept western principles. Emperors authority, bicameral legislature, limited civil rights, cabinet and PM, judicial system. This constituion allowed for political parties and electoral processes, even though it had its issues, the framework it laid can be seen in modern japan.

Question 90

okinawa prefecture

Answer 90

unique and culturally rich region, its ryukyuan culture was suppressed as it was integrated into japan, known for its role in WWII. Another unique culture for the country of japan;