Terms Flashcards
St Paul
64
Paul[a] (born Saul of Tarsus;[b] c. 5 – c. 64/65 AD), commonly known as Paul the Apostle[7] and Saint Paul,[8] was a Christian apostle (although not one of the original Twelve Apostles) who spread the teachings of Jesus in the first-century world.[9] Generally regarded as one of the most important figures of the Apostolic Age,[8][10] he founded several Christian communities in Asia Minor and Europe from the mid-40s to the mid-50s AD.[11]
According to the New Testament book Acts of the Apostles, Paul was a Pharisee; he participated in the persecution of early disciples of Jesus, possibly Hellenised diaspora Jews converted to Christianity,[12] in the area of Jerusalem, prior to his conversion.[note 1] In the narrative of Acts, some time after having approved of the execution of Stephen,[13] Paul was traveling on the road from Jerusalem to Damascus. On a mission that “he might bring [them] bound to Jerusalem” (ESV),[14] a bright light[15] suddenly shone around him, with the risen Christ verbally addressing his persecution. Having been made blind, along with being commanded to enter the city, his sight was restored three days later by Ananias of Damascus. After these events, Paul was baptized, beginning immediately to proclaim that Jesus of Nazareth was the Jewish messiah and the Son of God.[16] Approximately half of the Acts of the Apostles deals with Paul’s life and works.
Fourteen of the 27 books in the New Testament have traditionally been attributed to Paul.[17]
Origen
185 250
?? of Alexandria[a] (c. 185 – c. 253),[5] also known as Origen Adamantius,[b] was an early Christian scholar,[8] ascetic,[9] and theologian who was born and spent the first half of his career in Alexandria. He was a prolific writer who wrote roughly 2,000 treatises in multiple branches of theology, including textual criticism, biblical exegesis and hermeneutics, homiletics, and spirituality. He was one of the most influential and controversial figures in early Christian theology, apologetics, and asceticism.[9][10] He has been described as “the greatest genius the early church ever produced”.[11]
Origen sought martyrdom with his father at a young age but was prevented from turning himself in to the authorities by his mother. When he was eighteen years old, Origen became a catechist at the Catechetical School of Alexandria.
The martyrdom of St. Perpetua
203
The martyrdom of St. Perpetua 182-203
Death of Hippolytus of Rome
236
Hippolytus of Rome (/həˈpɑːlɪtəs/, Greek: Ἱππόλυτος; c. 170 – c. 235 AD) was one of the most important second-third century Christian theologians, whose provenance, identity and corpus remain elusive to scholars and historians. Suggested communities include Rome, Palestine, Egypt, Anatolia and other regions of the Middle East. The best historians of literature in the ancient church, including Eusebius of Caesarea and Jerome, openly confess they cannot name where Hippolytus the biblical commentator and theologian served in leadership. They had read his works but did not possess evidence of his community.
St Athanasius of Alexandria
296 373
of Alexandria 300-373 Patriarchal ABp.
Athanasius ran into difficulties with his dealings with the Melitians.
Athanasius, he noted that he would have preferred to use biblical terms alone to denote his position, but that such terms lacked the necessary precision to defend what appeared to him to be the biblical truth that the Son and the Father were one. Homoousios, he explained, meant there was a sharing of attributes among the Father, Son and Spirit. Basil
Ultimately salvation could be won, said Athanasius, only if God were the direct mediator of salvation, which is the heart of the Christian proclamation that the Logos is God and became incarnate in Jesus, son of Mary.
Nicaea to accept the homoiousios in a statement of faith at a council called by Athanasius in Alexandria.
Following Athanasius, the Cappadocians affirmed the full sharing of attributes among Father, Son, and Spirit. The analogy they drew was that of different human persons sharing the same human nature, doing so with a caution that the manner of divine subsisting was strictly one. Both Son and Spirit derived their divine nature from the Father, for there is no divine substance apart from the Father from whom they both proceed.
Life of Anthony of Egypt Best known as a champion of Nicene orthodoxy in the struggle against Arianism, Bishop Athanasius of Alexandria was also an advocate of ascetic life and endeavored to integrate the monastic movement more fully into the church in Egypt. His Life of Anthony, a biography of an early Egyptian hermit and older contemporary, was written ca. 357, quickly translated into Latin, and motivated men and women throughout the Roman Empire to imitate his way of life. Though Anthony himself lived as a solitary, his ascetic regimen served as a model for cenobitic as well anchoritic monasticism.
Again the enemy suggested the ease of pleasure. But he like a man filled with rage and grief turned his thoughts to the threatened fire and the gnawing worm, and setting these in array against his adversary, passed through the temptation unscathed. All this was a source of shame to his foe
Constantine the Great’s Edict of Toleration (issued from Milan)
313
The Edict of Milan (Latin: Edictum Mediolanense, Greek: Διάταγμα τῶν Μεδιολάνων, Diatagma tōn Mediolanōn) was the February 313 AD agreement to treat Christians benevolently within the Roman Empire.[1] Western Roman Emperor Constantine I and Emperor Licinius, who controlled the Balkans, met in Mediolanum (modern-day Milan) and, among other things, agreed to change policies towards Christians[1] following the edict of toleration issued by Emperor Galerius two years earlier in Serdica. The Edict of Milan gave Christianity legal status and a reprieve from persecution but did not make it the state church of the Roman Empire. That occurred in AD 380 with the Edict of Thessalonica.
Although the Edict of Milan is commonly presented as Constantine’s first great act as a Christian emperor, it is disputed whether the Edict of Milan was an act of genuine faith. The document could be seen as Constantine’s first step in creating an alliance with the Christian God, who he considered the strongest deity.[16] At that time, he was concerned about social stability and the protection of the empire from the wrath of the Christian God: in this view, the edict could be a pragmatic political decision rather than a religious shift. However, the majority of historians believe that Constantine’s conversion to Christianity was genuine, and that the Edict of Milan was merely the first official act of Constantine as a dedicated Christian. This view is supported by Constantine’s ongoing favors on behalf of Christianity during the rest of his reign.[17]
An edict of toleration is a declaration, made by a government or ruler, and states that members of a given religion will not be persecuted for engaging in their religious practices and traditions. The edict implies tacit acceptance of the religion rather than its endorsement by the ruling power.
St. Augustine of Hippo
354 430
According to his contemporary, Jerome, Augustine “established anew the ancient Faith”.[a] In his youth he was drawn to the major Persian religion, Manichaeism, and later to Neoplatonism. After his conversion to Christianity and baptism in 386, Augustine developed his own approach to philosophy and theology, accommodating a variety of methods and perspectives.[28] Believing the grace of Christ was indispensable to human freedom, he helped formulate the doctrine of original sin and made significant contributions to the development of just war theory. When the Western Roman Empire began to disintegrate, Augustine imagined the Church as a spiritual City of God, distinct from the material Earthly City.[29] His thoughts profoundly influenced the medieval worldview. The segment of the Church that adhered to the concept of the Trinityas defined by the Council of Nicaea and the Council of Constantinople[30] closely identified with Augustine’s On the Trinity.
The most controversial doctrine associated with him, the filioque,[37] was rejected by the Orthodox Church.[38] Other disputed teachings include his views on original sin, the doctrine of grace, and predestination.[37]
He later wrote an account of his conversion in his Confessions (Latin: Confessiones), which has since become a classic of Christian theology and a key text in the history of autobiography. This work is an outpouring of thanksgiving and penitence. Although it is written as an account of his life, the Confessions also talks about the nature of time, causality, free will, and other important philosophical topics.[84]
Also in reaction against the Donatists, Augustine developed a distinction between the “regularity” and “validity” of the sacraments. Regular sacraments are performed by clergy of the Catholic Church, while sacraments performed by schismatics are considered irregular. Nevertheless, the validity of the sacraments do not depend upon the holiness of the priests who perform them (ex opere operato); therefore, irregular sacraments are still accepted as valid provided they are done in the name of Christ and in the manner prescribed by the Church. On this point Augustine departs from the earlier teaching of Cyprian, who taught that converts from schismatic movements must be re-baptised.[33]
St. Augustine of Hippo is the patron of brewers because of his conversion from a former life of loose living, which included parties, entertainment, and worldly ambitions. His complete turnaround and conversion has been an inspiration to many who struggle with a particular vice or habit they long to break.
This famous son of St. Monica was born in Africa and spent many years of his life in wicked living and in false beliefs. Though he was one of the most intelligent men who ever lived and though he had been brought up a Christian, his sins of impurity and his pride darkened his mind so much, that he could not see or understand the Divine Truth anymore. Through the prayers of his holy mother and the marvelous preaching of St. Ambrose, Augustine finally became convinced that Christianity was the one true religion. Yet he did not become a Christian then, because he thought he could never live a pure life. One day, however, he heard about two men who had suddenly been converted on reading the life of St. Antony, and he felt terrible ashamed of himself. “What are we doing?” he cried to his friend Alipius. “Unlearned people are taking Heaven by force, while we, with all our knowledge, are so cowardly that we keep rolling around in the mud of our sins!” Full of bitter sorrow, Augustine flung himself out into the garden and cried out to God, “How long more, O Lord? Why does not this hour put an end to my sins?” Just then he heard a child singing, “Take up and read!” Thinking that God intended him to hear those words, he picked up the book of the Letters of St. Paul, and read the first passage his gaze fell on. It was just what Augustine needed, for in it, St. Paul says to put away all impurity and to live in imitation of Jesus. That did it! From then on, Augustine began a new life.
He was baptized, became a priest, a bishop, a famous Catholic writer, Founder of religious priests, and one of the greatest saints that ever lived. He became very devout and charitable, too. On the wall of his room he had the following sentence written in large letters: “Here we do not speak evil of anyone.” St. Augustine overcame strong heresies, practiced great poverty and supported the poor, preached very often and prayed with great fervor right up until his death. “Too late have I loved You!” he once cried to God, but with his holy life he certainly made up for the sins he committed before his conversion. His feast day is August 28th.
Emperor Julian’s Rescript on Teachers
362
In his efforts to stem and reverse the flow of pagans switching to Christianity, Julian settled upon a policy that utilised all of the elements listed above; both revolution and evolution in a number of policies aimed at all living within his empire. He sought to revitalise the appeal of paganism through the introduction of a similar charitable system to the Christian church, the restoration of grand sacrifices and ancient traditions and publicly proclaimed that the empire should be tolerant towards both pagans and Christians. However, coupled with this positive evolution of paganism, he also sought to undermine the church by encouraging the growth of the schisms which had formed through different interpretations of the Bible and he ensured that any damage caused to pagan temples resulted in harsh punishments for Christians and churches in the locality. As emperor, he also could promote pagans rather than Christians to important positions within the civil and military bureaucracies, allowing pagans to once again enjoy a political advantage over their rivals.
However, Julian recognised that, while these policies were helping to redress the balance between paganism and Christianity, the education of imperial citizens was key for any pagan regime to prosper over several generations. Thus, Julian introduced his edict on teaching. No longer were Christian teachers allowed to use any pagan literature to teach their students. The classic texts, such as the Aeneid and Iliad, were to be taught only by pagans, while the edict stated that ‘if they [Christians] want to learn literature, they have Luke and Mark’ (trans. P. Brown, The World of Late Antiquity: AD 150-750, p.93). This edict was a major financial blow for Christian teachers, potential students, who wanted to progress through Roman society, needed a classical education and both Christian and pagan parents were forced to employ pagans to teach their children. Even for Julian’s most ardent supporter, the historian Ammianus, the edict was labelled a ‘harsh act which should be buried in lasting oblivion’ and was listed by the author amongst the failings of Julian’s regime (22.10.7, 25.4.20); in the eyes of a cultured man such as Ammianus, to deny roman citizens of their culture, in the form of rhetoric and literature, was to deny them part of their roman identity – part of what separated them from barbarians.
Had this edict been in place for the remainder of the fourth century, it and Julian’s other policies could have changed the world we know today. Instead, the death of Julian and the return of Christian emperors not only saw a restoration of the Christian schools but also an end to the pagan resurgence.
St. Cyril of Alexandria
375- 431
Theotokos because cannot separate Christ; committed to the “1 physis of the Word became flesh”; Nicene Creed attributes divinity and humanity to a single subject. If you can separate divine God from human God then only a human died for us and that won’t bring us salvation…no point in being Christian for a human dying…only death of God made man
St. Cyril of Alexandria, Bishop and Doctor of the Church (June 27) Cyril was born at Alexandria, Egypt. He was nephew of the patriarch of that city, Theophilus. Cyril received a classical and theological education at Alexandria and was ordained by his uncle. He accompanied Theophilus to Constantinople in 403 and was present at the Synod of the Oak that deposed John Chrysostom, whom he believed guilty of the charges against him. He succeeded his uncle Theophilus as patriarch of Alexandria on Theophilus’ death in 412, but only after a riot between Cyril’s supporters and the followers of his rival Timotheus. Cyril at once began a series of attacks against the Novatians, whose churches he closed; the Jews, whom he drove from the city; and governor Orestes, with whom he disagreed about some of his actions. In 430 Cyril became embroiled with Nestorius, patriarch of Constantinople, who was preaching that Mary was not the Mother of God since Christ was Divine and not human, and consequently she should not have the word theotokos (God-bearer) applied to her. He persuaded Pope Celestine I to convoke a synod at Rome, which condemned Nestorius, and then did the same at his own synod in Alexandria. Celestine directed Cyril to depose Nestorius, and in 431, Cyril presided over the third General Council at Ephesus, attended by some two hundred bishops, which condemned all the tenets of Nestorius and his followers before the arrival of Archbishop John of Antioch and forty-two followers who believed Nestorius was innocent. When they found what had been done, they held a council of their own and deposed Cyril. Emperor Theodosius II arrested both Cyril and Nestorius but released Cyril on the arrival of Papal Legates who confirmed the council’s actions against Nestorius and declared Cyril innocent of all charges. Two years later, Archbishop John, representing the moderate Antiochene bishops, and Cyril reached an agreement and joined in the condemnation, and Nestorius was forced into exile. During the rest of his life, Cyril wrote treatises that clarified the doctrines of the Trinity and the Incarnation and that helped prevent Nestorianism and Pelagianism from taking long-term deep root in the Christian community. He was the most brilliant theologian of the Alexandrian tradition. His writings are characterized by accurate thinking, precise exposition, and great reasoning skills. Among his writings are commentaries on John, Luke, and the Pentateuch, treatises on dogmatic theology, and Apologia against Julian the Apostate, and letters and sermons. He was declared a doctor of the Church by Pope Leo XIII in 1882. His feast day is June 27th.
Pelagius (the heretic, when did he flourish)
400
St. Leo the Great
431
Saint Leo the Great, also known as Pope Saint Leo I, was born into a Roman aristocratic family. His response to the call of the Lord transformed him into one of the greatest popes of Christian history. In fact, he was the first pope to be given the title “the Great.” Details pertaining to Leo’s place of birth are not known, but it is believed his ancestors come from Tuscany.
St. Leo the Great became a very well-known deacon of the Church by 431, serving the church under the pontificate of Pope Celestine I. Leo was widely respected for his love for the Lord, intelligence and persuasive nature. He was also gifted in bringing reconciliation between disputing groups of Christians.
That is why he was often sent out to settle disputes, both secular and theological. Following the pontificate of Pope Celestine, the next Pope was Pope Sixtus III.
Pope Sixtus III passed away while Leo was visiting Gaul at the request of Emperor Valentinian III. His task was to bring peace between one of Gaul’s chief military commanders and the chief magistrate. Leo was then unanimously elected as the next pope to succeed Pope Sixtus III in 440. His swift election reflected the respect he had garnered among the people from his service to the Lord and the affection the faithful had this pastoral and wise servant of the Lord. Pope Leo was deeply dedicated to his service as pope. He saw himself as privileged to sit in the Chair of St Peter, as the servant of the servants of God. He worked diligently as “Peter’s successor.” Over time, Leo became known as one of the best administrative popes of the ancient Church. But, he was so much more.
During his reign, he tirelessly fought to preserve the unity of the Church and its faith; and to ensure the safety of his people against invasions from armies which sought to destroy the Church and the Christian influence on culture which she brought to bear.
Pope Leo I focused his pontificate on four main areas. He continuously worked to oppose and root out numerous heresies which were threatening the Western Church. Among them were Pelagianism, which involved denying Original Sin and failing to understand the necessity of God’s grace for salvation.
At the foundation of the Pelagian error was the mistaken notion that we can perfect ourselves without God’s grace and assistance.
The other major heresy threatening the Church was Manichaeism.
This heresy denied the goodness of the human body, creation, and even matter itself. It failed to understand the full implications of the Incarnation of Jesus Christ. In fact, it denigrated the human body. In short, it viewed everything material as evil. That denies the very teaching of the Hebrew Scriptures and the New Testament. It also rejects the very heart of the Gospel message.
Pope Leo I was a great defender of the orthodox teaching of the Catholic Christian Church and protected the full deposit of faith. The whole Church is still indebted to him for this.
During this same period, some Eastern Christians began questioning the teaching of the Church concerning the relationship between Jesus’ humanity and his divinity, and how to articulate this mystery of the Christian faith.
In response, Leo resolved the doctrinal controversy with a letter setting down the Church’s official teaching on Jesus Christ as One Person with a human and a divine nature which could not be separated. This profound and theologically astute letter reconciled the disputing parties. It preserved the core teaching concerning Jesus Christ. Finally, it affirmed the fullness of what occurred in the Incarnation, as well as its implications for all men and women who are baptized into Jesus Christ.
To this day, Leo’s letter is heralded and praised, not only for bringing peace, but for preserving the fullness of Christian truth and doctrine. It helped the whole Church enter more fully into the heart of the Gospel message of who Jesus is - and who we can become in Him, as we cooperate with grace. Along with his dynamic faith and outstanding theological wisdom, Pope Leo I was also courageous. He led Rome’s defense against Attila the Hun’s barbarian invasion on Italy in 452, by taking on the role of peacemaker.
Pope St Leo focused heavily on the pastoral care of his people. He inspired and helped to foster charitable work in areas of Rome affected heavily by famine, refugees and poverty. To him, being a Christian was not only about embracing the fullness of the Gospel theologically but living it out in a world filled with hurt, suffering and needs.
Pope Leo I was renowned for his profoundly spiritual sermons. With his words, Leo could reach the everyday needs and interests of his people. It was his reputation as an “instrument of the call to holiness, well-versed in Scripture and ecclesiastical awareness” that helped him become one of the greatest popes in the history of the Church.
Leo died on November 10, 461. He wished to be buried as close as possible to St. Peter’s tomb. His body was first laid in the entrance of St. Peter’s basilica but was later moved inside the basilica in 688.
Pope Leo I’s papacy has been described as one of the most important in the Church’s history. Nearly 100 sermons and 150 letters of Leo I have been preserved; one of them is still, to this day, used in the Office of Readings on Christmas.
In 1754, Pope Benedict XIV proclaimed Leo I a Doctor of the Church. Pope Leo I faithfully and unequivocally held to the belief that everything he did and said as pope represented Jesus Christ, and St. Peter. He discharged his office, and vocation, with dynamic faith, great pastoral care and excellence. His feast day is celebrated on November 10.
Emperor Justinian and wars of reconquest
528 556
One of the greatest achievements of emperor Justinian I (527-565 CE) was the Reconquest of the Roman West. After more than half a century of barbarian rule, the Eastern Roman (or Byzantine) armies restored control over territories that once belonged to the Western Roman Empire: Northern Africa, Italy, and Spain. The success of the ambitious campaign would be impossible without Belisarius, probably one of the most brilliant generals in history. Under his command, the imperial expeditionary forces landed in Vandal-controlled Northern Africa. In less than a year, the Byzantine Empire restored control over the region and its capital: Carthage. The reconquest of Carthage in 533 CE led to the collapse of the Vandal Kingdom. With Africa reincorporated into the Empire, Justinian could move to the next phase of his grandiose plan – the reconquest of Italy and restoring imperial control over the entire Mediterranean.
Council of Orange (which we referenced in class)
529
The Second Council of Orange (or Second Synod of Orange) was held in 529 at Orange, which was then part of the Ostrogothic Kingdom. It affirmed much of the theology of Augustine of Hippo, and made numerous proclamations against what later would come to be known as semi-Pelagian doctrine.
Conclusions of the Council[edit]
The question at hand was whether a moderate form of Pelagianism could be affirmed, or if the doctrines of Augustine were to be affirmed. The determination of the council could be considered “semi-Augustinian”.[2][3] It defined that faith, though a free act of man, resulted, even in its beginnings, from the grace of God, enlightening the human mind and enabling belief.[4][5][6] However, it also explicitly denied double predestination (of the equal-ultimacy variety), stating, “We not only do not believe that any are foreordained to evil by the power of God, but even state with utter abhorrence that if there are those who want to believe so evil a thing, they are anathema.” The document links grace with baptism, which was not a controversial subject at the time. It received papal approbation under Pope Felix IV.[7]
Effects[edit]
The canons of the Second Council influenced the interpretation of Augustine in the later medieval Western Church, such as by Thomas Aquinas. Classical Protestantism affirms the theology of the Second Council of Orange and has appealed to its conclusions to make a case that the Lutheran and Calvinist doctrines of sola gratia, sola fide, solus Christus, and original sin as total depravity had already been taught much earlier than the 16th-century Protestant Reformation. Arminian theologians[8][9] also consider the Council of Orange historically significant in that it strongly affirmed the necessity of prevenient grace and yet did not present divine grace as irresistible, deny the free will of the unregenerate to repent in faith, or endorse a strictly Augustinian view of predestination.
St. Gregory the Great
540 604
Pope Saint Gregory I, also known as the Great, was the Pope of the Catholic Church between 590 and 604 AD.
Gregory was born around 540 in Rome. The exact date of his birth is unknown. Although the Western Roman Empire had collapsed long before his birth, many ancient Roman families still commanded great wealth and influence in the city. Gregory was born into one such family. His great-great-grandfather was Pope Felix III who reigned from 483 to 492. (Astute readers may suspect this to be a scandal, but this was at a time before the clergy took vows of celibacy.)
His father was named Gordianus, and he was a senator and a Prefect of Rome. Gordianus also held a position in the Church with the title of Regionarius, but there are no records from the time which describe the post. Gregory’s mother was Silvia, also from a noble family. Silvia’s sister (Gregory’s aunt), Pateria are both recognized as saints in the Catholic and Orthodox churches. Gregory had a brother, but nothing is recorded, neither his name or his fate.
Gregory’s family was very wealthy and owned estates on the island of Sicily which provided income.
When Gregory was just two years old in 542, the Plague of Justinian swept through the region. This plague was caused by a now-extinct strain of Yersinia Pestis, more commonly known as the Black Death. The plague was the most severe outbreak of deadly disease the world had ever known and remained the worst such incident until the Black Death in the 14th century. About a third of the population in Italy was wiped out by the disease. In addition to disease, the barbarian Ostrogoths sacked Rome in 546. The Franks attempted an invasion in 554. Both of these incursions were short lived. It is unclear how these massive events impacted Gregory’s development as a child, but it is thought his family retreated to Sicily during part of that time. Peace followed in Italy after these upheavals.
Gregory was well educated and excelled in all his studies. He also became an expert in law. He excelled so much he became the Prefect of Rome, just as his father had been. Gregory was only 33 years old.
After Gregory’s father had died, Gregory had the family villa in Rome converted into a monastery. Today the monastery still stands as the San Gregorio Magno al Celio. This famous monastery fell into ruin in the following centuries but was restored during the 17th and 18th centuries.
As a monk, Gregory was hard and strict. When a monk on his deathbed confessed to stealing three pieces of gold, Gregory ordered he be left to die alone. After the poor monk had died, Gregory ordered his body thrown on a dung heap along with the three coins. Then, in a turn of heart, Gregory offered 30 Masses for the deceased monk.
Pope Pelagius II, who reigned from 579 to 590, chose Gregory to serve as an ambassador to the imperial court in Constantinople.
The Pope had a problem with the Lombards invading from the west. Gregory was ordered to request military aid from the emperor. But the emperor felt there were greater threats to the east, and he refused Gregory’s request.
In 590, Pope Pelagius II died, and Gregory was proclaimed pope by acclamation. This was not something Gregory wanted, but he accepted the burden nevertheless.
Gregory made clear he preferred the monastic life in a series of writings praising it. He also referred to himself as a servant of God. The habit remains in practice to this day and many clergy still refer to themselves as servants.
Pope Gregory was famous for the emphasis he put on missionary work. He sent many people out to bring many to Jesus and into the Church. Anglo-Saxon Britain was, at that time, still on the frontier of Christendom. It was Pope Gregory who dispatched St. Augustine (of Canterbury) to Kent in 597 (not to be confused with St. Augustine of Hippo).
Pope Gregory made many changes to the Mass, some of which remain today, The position of the Our Father in the Mass remains where Pope Gregory placed it.
Death of Mohammed
570
Muhammad ibn Abdullah[n 1] (Arabic: مُحَمَّد ٱبن عَبْد ٱللَّٰه, romanized: Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh Classical Arabic pronunciation: [muˈħammad]; c. 570 – 8 June 632 CE)[1][2] was an Arab religious, social, and political leader and the founder of the world religion of Islam.[3] According to Islamic doctrine, he was a prophet, divinely inspired to preach and confirm the monotheistic teachings of Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets.[3][4][5][6] He is believed to be the final prophet of God in all the main branches of Islam, though the modern Ahmadiyya movement diverges from this belief.[n 2] Muhammad united Arabia into a single Muslim polity, with the Quran as well as his teachings and practices forming the basis of Islamic religious belief.
Muhammad was born approximately 570 CE in Mecca.[1] He was the son of Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib and Amina bint Wahb. His father Abdullah was the son of Quraysh tribal leader Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim, and he died a few months before Muhammad’s birth. His mother Amina died when he was six, leaving Muhammad an orphan.[7] He was raised under the care of his grandfather, Abd al-Muttalib, and paternal uncle, Abu Talib.[8] In later years, he would periodically seclude himself in a mountain cave named Hira for several nights of prayer. When he was 40, Muhammad reported being visited by Gabriel in the cave[1][9] and receiving his first revelation from God. In 613,[10] Muhammad started preaching these revelations publicly,[11] proclaiming that “God is One”, that complete “submission” (islām) to God[12] is the right way of life (dīn),[13] and that he was a prophet and messenger of God, similar to the other prophets in Islam.[14][15][16]
Muhammad’s followers were initially few in number, and experienced hostility from Meccan polytheists for 13 years. To escape ongoing persecution, he sent some of his followers to Abyssinia in 615, before he and his followers migrated from Mecca to Medina (then known as Yathrib) later in 622. This event, the Hijra, marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar, also known as the Hijri Calendar. In Medina, Muhammad united the tribes under the Constitution of Medina. In December 629, after eight years of intermittent fighting with Meccan tribes, Muhammad gathered an army of 10,000 Muslim converts and marched on the city of Mecca. The conquest went largely uncontested and Muhammad seized the city with little bloodshed. In 632, a few months after returning from the Farewell Pilgrimage, he fell ill and died. By the time of his death, most of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam.[17][18]
Timothy of Bahgdad (time as “Patriarch”)
823
”"”Timothy I[1] (c. 740[2] – 9 January 823) was the Patriarch of the Church of the East from 780 to 823 and one of the most influential patriarchs in its history. Respected both as an author, a church leader and a diplomat, Timothy was also an excellent administrator. During his reign he reformed the metropolitan administration of the Church of the East, granting greater independence to the metropolitan bishops of the mission field (the ‘exterior’ provinces) but excluding them from participation in patriarchal elections. These reforms laid the foundations for the later success of Church of the East missions in Central Asia.
Timothy of Bahgdad (time as “Patriarch”) 727-823
- Apology of Patriarch Timothy of Baghdad before the Caliph Mahdi When the Abbasid caliphate established its new Islamic capital in Baghdad (750), the patriarch of the Persian or East Syrian church (that is, the Church of the East) moved to Baghdad as well. In 780 the reforming, missionary-minded bishop Timothy became patriarch. In 781 he participated in a two-day interreligious dialogue with the Abbasid caliph, Mahdi, and later wrote an account of their interchange that circulated as an apology. In matters of Christology, some of the dyophysite (i.e., two-nature) emphases of the East Syrian church are evident in this fascinating conversation between a Muslim caliph and a Christian bishop.
- That God is one and that there is no other one besides Him.”—And I replied: “This belief in one God, O my Sovereign, I have learned from the Torah, from the Prophets and from the Gospel.
- In saying He ‘is one,’ he refers to the one nature of Godhead, and in saying the three words, ‘Lord, God, and Lord’ he refers to the three persons of that Godhead, as if one was saying
- I do not deny that I believe in one God in three, and three in one, but not in three different Godheads, however, but in the persons of God’s Word and His Spirit.
- because this number one is the cause of the number two, and the number two that of the number three. This is how one is the cause of three, as I said, O King. On the other hand the number three is also the cause of the number one because since the number three is caused by the number two and this number two by the number one, the number three is therefore the cause of number one.””””
Diocletian Persecution
284 305
The Diocletianic or Great Persecution was the last and most severe persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire.[1] In 303, the emperors Diocletian, Maximian, Galerius, and Constantius issued a series of edicts rescinding Christians’ legal rights and demanding that they comply with traditional religious practices. Later edicts targeted the clergy and demanded universal sacrifice, ordering all inhabitants to sacrifice to the gods. The persecution varied in intensity across the empire—weakest in Gaul and Britain, where only the first edict was applied, and strongest in the Eastern provinces. Persecutory laws were nullified by different emperors (Galerius with the Edict of Serdica in 311) at different times, but Constantine and Licinius’ Edict of Milan (313) has traditionally marked the end of the persecution.
