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Cognitive Psychology > terms and models - TERM 2 > Flashcards

terms and models - TERM 2 Flashcards

1
Q

iconic and echoic memory

A

sensory memory
iconic = visual info
echoic = acoustic info

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2
Q

working memory

A

storage and manipulation of information

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3
Q

flexibility

A

arbitrary connections between items
limited capacity

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4
Q

multicomponent model of WM

A

CE as homunculus
visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer, phonological loop = LTM

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5
Q

word length effect exp

A

recall shorter words easier than longer words as refreshed quicker within 2 seconds

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6
Q

phonological similarity effect

A

recall is worse when items sound similar
words that are semantically similar have no effect on WM - means that WM coding is phonological (only affected by sound of word not meaning)

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6
Q

articulatory suppression

A

asked to utter irrelevant word while presented with words to remember
stope subvocal rehearsal
word length effect doesn’t exist with visual presentation - only auditory (if someone reads the words aloud to you)

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7
Q

deafness

A

have sign-based phonological store
use manual articulatory rehearsal mechanisms to refresh information in phonological store

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7
Q

visuospatial info

A

doesn’t integrate with phonological loop except in the episodic buffer

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8
Q

mental rotation task

A

presented with pairs of objects and asked to decide whether they are identical or mirror images of each other by mentally rotating one of the objects to align it with the other

blind participants generated spatial representations just as good

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9
Q

Klauer and Zhao

A

memorised dots on a grid (spatial) or Chinese characters (visual)

visual interference tasks affected visual task (dots)
spatial interference tasks affected spatial task (character)

= competition

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9
Q

domain specificity

A

complex span task
predicts lower recall for same-domain combination

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10
Q

decay

A

info gets weaker over time
restoration mechanisms = rehearsal and refreshing
forgetting may be due to events rather than time

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10
Q

cowans embedded process model

A

WM holds limited info - heightened state of availability

LTM has an activated portion holding relevant information for current cognitive task (small)

WM has narrow focus of attention - excludes irrelevant information

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11
Q

what limits working memory

A

decay
interference
limited resource

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12
Q

interference

A

types=
confusion - similar info competes for retrieval
superposition - new information encoded on top of existing info
overwriting -new info replaces stored info

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13
Q

limited resource

A

resourced flexibly allocated and in discrete/continuos units

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14
Q

why does WM capacity vary?

A

executive attention hypothesis - differences in ability to control attention

binding hypothesis - encoding information simultaneously. Capacity relies on number of bindings maintained

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15
Q

transfer effects

A

improvement on practice task lead to improvements on unpracticed task.

improvements due to strategy based training (task specific) or process-based training (repeated of complex span tasks)

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16
Q

functional overlap

A

improvement expected if practice and no practice tasks share underlying processes

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17
Q

measuring training effects

A

performance at pre-test compared to performance at post-tests
put against control group

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18
Q

Klingberg training study - WM

A

children with ADHD
big pre-post difference in intensive training compared to active control

-uncorrected differences in change are only small

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19
Q

near transfer v far transfer

A

near = transfer of skills to a task closely related

far = transfer of skills to a task not closely related

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20
Q

Redick et al

A

no significant near or far transfer effects in spatial and verbal reasoning tasks

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21
Q

limitations of WM training

A

insufficient evidence
lack of active controls
small sample sizes

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22
Q

multiple sources of variances framework

A

enhanced capacity - training increase info held in WM (broad transfer effects)

enhanced efficiency - selective transfer effects

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23
Q

differences in training benefits

A

magnification - larger improvement seen in younger adults most

compensation - use different strategies for same outcome in older adults

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24
Q

cogmed

A

WM training programme
larger improvements in verbal near transfer tasks

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25
Q

lexical characteristic that affect speed of access

A

word length
frequency of words
neighbourhood density

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26
Q

spreading activation

A

facilitates predictions of words next appearing via activation of items that are related to acoustic input

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27
Q

challenges for lexical access

A

accents
speech is a continuous stream
co-articulation
homonyms (words sound same but have different meaning)
ambiguous word boundaries (only fools and horses)

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27
Q

categorical perception

A

ability to distinguish between sounds on a continuum based on voice onset times

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28
Q

Ericcson study

A

increase in memory span from 7 to 79 digits with 230 hours of brain training

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29
Q

bottom up processing

A

process by which speech sounds initially analysed and recognised based on acoustic features

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30
Q

top down processing

A

use of linguistic knowledge and contextual clues to facilitate recognition of speech sounds

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30
Q

mechanics of lexical access

A
  • Gradual activation of the word that matched the sound
  • Activate all words that match same start sound of a word and gradually de-activate words that no longer match sounds
  • Gradually activate that matching word that related more than other words
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31
Q

cohort model

A

bottom up processing

we access words in lexicon via activation of words sharing initial features and gradually de-activate words that stop matching

= neighbourhood effects, frequency effects

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32
Q

architecture of cohort model

A

speech input > lexical item
facilitatory signals are sent to words that match
inhibitory signals are sent to words that do not match

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33
Q

cross modal priming

A

prime word is auditory
target word is visual
shorter RT when words are related

then do the same but with fragments not full words

biasing the sentence had no difference in priming effect - only when given the full word not fragments

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33
Q

context in the cohort model

A

Sentence context doesn’t influence the process of lexical access – integration is affected by sentence context

items that match acoustic input but not sentence context are activated

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33
Q

priming paradigm

A

what we did in RM
prime word then target word
uses spreading activation

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34
Q

TRACE model vs cohort model

A

TRACE emphasises top down processing while short minimises its impact

cohort predicts lexical accès is bias to activation of words with shared onsets
TRACE accommodates activation of rhyming competitors

TRACE provides no account on context

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34
Q

uniqueness point

A

point at which other candidates have become deactivated

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34
Q

TRACE model

A

Features activate phonemes that activate words with a gradual increase in activation of words that match all features so that the word with most activation wins

radical activation model

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34
Q

architecture of TRACE

A

hierarchical network of nodes: features, phonemes and words = dominant bottom up processing
opposite direction = top down

top down processing increases activation of phonemes and features

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35
Q

visual word paradigm

A

eye tracking study
showed words overlapping phonology that don’t start with same onset as speech input, are activated in speech perception

results:
rhyming competitor receives activation (looked at)

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36
Q

TRACE - top down

A

faster identification of letters in words rather than nonwords

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37
Q

orthography

A

the written word

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38
Q

3 different routes to understanding words

A

Written word > activate letters > activate phonemes > activate phonological form > semantics

Written word > active letters > activate orthographic form > activate phonological form > semantics

Written word > active letters >activate orthographic form > semantics

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38
Q

dual route cascade model

A

Excitatory and inhibitory connections
Motivate process or stop a process
Adjusts strengths of connections, provides input and assess output

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38
Q

dual cascade lexical route

A

Orthographic lexicon > semantics > phonological lexicon

used for irregular words as need semantics to understand meanings

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39
Q

dual cascade non lexical route

A

Spelling to sound correspondence > phonological lexicon

relationship between letters and sounds = grapheme phoneme correspondence

dyslexia - deficit in non-lexical route so issues reading non-words

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40
Q

graphemes

A

single grapheme = single phoneme
a single phoneme (sound) can be represented by more than one grapheme (letter)

leads to regular (mint) and irregular words (pint)

WRITTEN REPRESENTATION OF PHONEME

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41
Q

shallow and deep orthography

A

shallow - transparent language, spelling of words map directly on to its pronunciation

deep - opaque language, spelling of words don’t map directly on to its pronunciation

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41
Q

advantages of dual route cascade

A

accounts for orthographic and phonological lexicon

accounts for regular and irregular words

accounts for new or novel words (grapheme-phoneme correspondence)

42
Q

self-teaching hypothesis

A

children de-code words
using existing phonological representations - then develop orthographic representation

43
Q

what is needed to develop orthographic lexicon

A

phonological representations
good verbal language
exposure to printed word

44
Q

learning to read: DRC

A

contextual cues (spoken words) and exposure to print (lots of reading on regular basis)

45
Q

why may some people have difficulty reading?

A

struggle to link graphemes and phonemes

46
Q

what is dyslexia

A

difficulties in accuracy or fluency of reading that are not consistent with persons age, educational level or intellectual abilities

difficulty decoding (phonological processing)
test using phoneme deletion/substituion task

46
Q

lexical retrieval

A

recognising whole words
tested using rapid automatic naming of regular and irregular words

46
Q

verbal STM

A

retaining information

tested using word and digit span

47
Q

phonological awareness

A

being able to drop phonemes from word
difficulty appears 1st yr of school but goes away by 6th year

learning how to read separates groups more

dyslexic pp can do the task, just slower with less fluency

48
Q

phonological deficit

A

less robust orthographic lexicon and less fluidity reading
difficult decoding
knock on effects - less motivation to read so limited orthographic lexicon

49
Q

surface dyslexia

A

typical decoding but difficult spelling
phonological awareness unimpaired
irregular word reading impaired
unable to distinguish between homophones
LEXICAL ROUTE IMAPIRED

50
Q

phonological dyselxia

A

deficits in non-lexical route
problems reading non-words

51
Q

helping dyslexia

A

uses contextual cues
e.g. lets go for a … PINT
helps with irregular words
studied by Frith and Snowling - found dyslexia readers use context more for regular words

require stronger semantic processing to compensate for weaker phonological processing

52
Q

bilingualism

A

ability of communicating in two languages and the linguistic knowledge base the enables this ability

53
Q

types of bilingual

A

simultaneous bilingual = more than 1 language from birth

early sequential bilingual = learning second language after first

late sequential bilingual = learning second language after first later in life

53
Q

how we learn bilingualism

A

learning in a natural environment
learning at school
balanced (uses both languages equally)/unbalanced bilingualism

54
Q

commonalities of bilingualism

A

effects of languages on perception (e.g. colour)
mental representation of timelines
expression
theory of mind
executive functions

55
Q

lexicon in bilingualism

A

separate lexicons with separate semantics
or one lexicon (compound system = all representations link to one semantic store, subordinative system = second language linked to semantic store of first language)

55
Q

evidence for shared and separate stores

A

1 group who learnt languages in separate context and other in fused context

fused showed less difference in semantic ratings
separate group had separate semantic stores, fused had shared

56
Q

lexicosemantic representation

A

representation differs depending on monolingual or bilingual, context acquired, word type, learning strategy

57
Q

revised hierarchical model

A

L2 to L1 links strong as it is a reference - translating this way is quicker

suggests L1 is linked to semantics more than L2

overtime we build conceptual links

57
Q

Kolers language switch costs

A

pp slower to name images when switching between languages (delay)

languages can be switched on or off and effort is needed to switch = separate lexicons

58
Q

language interdependent

A

1 lexicon
competition for selection from both languages

59
Q

naming pictures for L2

A

beginners: find semantics and find relevant phonological and orthographic representations from L1

prolific: developed semantic links

59
Q

bilingual stroop task

A

incongruent and congruent conditions
significantly slower to respond to colour words compared to asterisks regardless of language of the word or language response

= don’t switch off language and have one lexicon

60
Q

priming effects - bilingualism

A

reaction times for L1 targets preceded by L2 prime faster than L2 targets and L1 prime

asymmetrical = only L2>L1 not L1>L2

counter evidence however

61
Q

bilingual Interactive activation model

A

activation is bottom up from features to words
recognition of a word inhibit activation of other words

activation of letters is not language selective
all words that match input are activated

at word level, semantic representations linked to words are activated

high frequency words have higher resting activating level

62
Q

switch costs

A

cross language lexical decision task
pp slower to recognise words in mixed lists because one language is inhibited

63
Q

consequence of having more thane language

A

inhibitory feature of language node (domain general) in BIA model shows competition between languages and how bilinguals have stronger inhibitory control

64
Q

blumenfield and marian

A

pp with high proficiency more likely to look at cross language competitor then pp with lower proficiency

  • better inhibition

negative correlation between Simon effects and cross language competitors = high levels were able to inhibit inappropriate responses more easily

65
Q

automaticity

A

tasks performed to be automatic
more specific than skill

66
Q

tasks used to measure automaticity

A

stroop - colour of ink
flanker - respond to central arrow
Simon - push named button
go/ no-go - capacity to not respond

67
Q

stroop task results

A

slower RT to incongruent information suggests automaticity of word interrupts processing of colour

68
Q

Durgin arguement

A

verbal stimuli of written word and verbal response when asked to read word = less processing when ask to name ink colour = quicker

conflict when visual stimuli needs to translate into verbal responses = slower

69
Q

stroop task manipulation

A

point to ink that matched word (slower) or ink colour in word (quicker)

longer RT and more errors when. pointing to colour patch

goes against automaticity

70
Q

attentional manipulations

A

directed attention to single letter in stroop task
when asked to name colour of ink, there was no effect/interference

automaticity depends on where and how you pay attention

71
Q

stimulus onset asynchrony, speed of processing

A

words are processed more quickly than ink colour

staggered presentation of word and ink colour =
when word presentation too late, it doesn’t interfere with processing of ink name

72
Q

MacLeod and Dunbar - stroop

A

pp named colours
assigned these colours to shapes
pp asked to name colours when shapes appeared
pp asked to name shapes when appeared in colour

after 2 hrs - colour interfere with naming shapes
after 5 hrs - colours interfere with naming shapes
20 hrs - shapes interfere with naming colours

SUGGESTED AUTOMATICITY CAN BE PRACTICED

73
Q

comparing skils and habits

A

skill is the interplay between automatic and cognitive control processes
habit are automatic and inflexible

74
Q

juggling study

A

juggling under different conditions
skill was maintained
demonstrates skills rather than habits

75
Q

typing as a skill

A

controlled and automatic processing

Logan and crump - asked to type violin and were correct or showed error
3rd condition = typed correct but told was incorrect, 4th = the opposite

measured using self report and typing speed

76
Q

Logan crump results

A

correct condition = typists correctly stated they were correct

error condition = most were aware they made error

inserted error condition = illusion of authorship (pp believed they made error when they didn’t)

corrected error = pp believed they had not made errors when in fact they had

pp were slower when made real error

77
Q

hierarchical loops

A

outer loop - language comrephensions and generation. Visual feedback
inner loop - translated words into finger movements. Finger/keyboard interactions

78
Q

YERKES DODSON law

A

arousal and performance
right level = peak performance
too much = decline
practice shifts graph to right so need more arousal to decline performance

79
Q

choking under pressure

A

experts - best under dual-task conditions but for right foot.
right foot condition - attentional focus hinders performance, distraction improves

80
Q
A
80
Q

attention and performance

A

where u focus attention is important - misallocation of attention can disrupt performance

81
Q

ironic processing

A

thinking hard interferes with the process of doing it
when mental capacity is reduced, it can lead to the opposite intended goal

82
Q

theory of deliberate practice

A

underpinning expertise
focus on reducing errors
effortful and extensive practice
= expert

83
Q

against deliberate practice

A

higher performers have head start

84
Q

two types of bias

A

availability bias - over-estimating frequency of rare events
framing bias - switching decisions based on question framing

84
Q

rationality

A

set of norms
correspond to reality

84
Q

rationality -probability based on value

A

rational choice is to invest to maximise expected value (what it will have in future)

85
Q

value and utility - decision making

A

future uncertain
asses risks and benefit
increase chance of positive outcome
knowledge to estimate probability of future events

85
Q

risk aversion

A

tendency of people to accept a sure outcome over a riskier outcome

85
Q

expected utility theory

A

we choose option that maximises utility (satisfaction)
value is not utility - utility is how much u enjoy it, value is cost

86
Q

marginal utility

A

as money increases, each addition to ones fortune becomes less important

86
Q

calculating expected utility

A

E = p*U
e= expected utility
p= probability
u= utility

multiple options =
E = p1U1 + p2U2

87
Q

loss aversion and prospect theory

A

when guaranteed loss, ppl choose option where loss may or may not happen rather than optimal utility

88
Q

ecological rationality

A

how you should behave in the environment to survive rather than simply by norms
correspondance more important than coherence

88
Q

heuristics

A

assumptions about environment about associations and risks

can have biases
recognition heuristic = when one option is recognised, it will be given higher value than the one not recognised
works when some knowledge

88
Q

adaptive value

A

value of an action across time
maximises long term expected value

89
Q

heuristics v rational thinking - dual process theory

A

heuristics = quicker, automatic, effortless, unconscious

89
Q

Wasons 2-4-6 task

A

given sequence of numbers
pp asked to guess rule
pp usually give a rule more abstract than the actual rule
= confirmation bias

positive or negative test strategies

89
Q

biases are not mere errors

A

bias = systematic deviations from right choice

90
Q

testing small group decision making

A

3-6 people
short tasks - decision tasks (wagons - 80% correct in group but 80% wrong individually)
common aims

91
Q

are groups better than individuals?

A

groups performed at the accuracy of second best member of group

process loss = group decisions are worse than individual (madness of crowd)

process gain = group decisions are better than individual (wisdom of crowd)

92
Q

task types - comparing groups

A

intellective v judgement tasks
well-defined (intellective) v ill-defined (judgment)

intellective - time means groups performed as well as best individual on intellective tasks

judgement - best member outperforms groups

when no Clear answer, groups perform at average level of members

93
Q

standards of comparison

A

synergy in group

94
Q

coordination methods

A

how group functions

no discussion = average individual

anonymous, no discussion = Delphi method

best individual chose to answer in group = dictator method

group agreement = consensus method

discuss and revise = dialectic methods

95
Q

evidence for different coordination methods

A

best improvement in dictator, then Delphi, then dialectic
least improvement in consensus

96
Q

individual differences

A

access to cues
ability - memory capacity
willingness to coordinate

97
Q

achieving group consensus

A

by revision (within individual) and weighting (multiple judgements)

98
Q

Gigone and Hastie - lens model

A

framework showing diff factors affecting group cognition

difficult to study as limited access to internal thoughts

99
Q

wisdom crowds

A

influences: uncorrelated errors and no systematic bias (mean closer to true value)

correlated errors - due to limited information, shared biases and group conformity (REDUCES wisdom)

100
Q

groupthink

A

polarisation in group decision making

high cohesive groups exhibit premature consensus seeking = poor decision making

101
Q

criticisms of groupthink

A

not a distinct phenomenon
lack of evidence for all constructs

101
Q

helping wisdom of crowds

A

diversity in group - longer in complex discussion

102
Q

argumentative theory of reasoning

A

reasoning is aimed to persuade not find the truth
able to refine beliefs through debates

103
Q

collective intelligence

A

ability of a group to perform a wide variety of tasks

not limited to specific tasks

103
Q

correlations of c factor in intelligence

A

not correlated with individual intelligence

correlated with:
average social sensitivity
equality in distribution of turn-taking
females in group
diversity (cognitive too)

104
Q

study for collective intelligence

A

272 pp
34 groups in each condition (online or face-to-face)

say emotion related to pair of eyes
intelligence measured (ravens advanced progressive matrices test)

found predictors of group intelligence:
social sensitivity
amount and distribution of communication

Cognitive Psychology (4 decks)

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