Test 1 Flashcards
(139 cards)
1
Q
Psychology
A
The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
2
Q
Behavior processes
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Outward or overt actions that are observable and quantifiable (or measureable).
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Mental Processes
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internal or covert activity like thinking, feeling, or remembering that is not observable, but is qualitative (can only be measured)
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4 Goals of Psychology
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Describe, Explain, Predict, and Control
5
Q
describe
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what is happening
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explain
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why it is happening
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Predict
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what will happen next
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Control
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What will happen or when it happens
9
Q
Elements of Psychology Research
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Perceiving the question, forming a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, drawing conclusions, and reporting results
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Q
Goals of Psychology Research
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Why people act the way they do in their internal environments or why the person is choosing to act the way he or she is.
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5 research methods
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case study, laboratory observation, survey, correlation studies, and experiments
12
Q
Case study
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individual or a small group of people that you are studying through observation and interviewing to gather in depth knowledge
13
Q
laboratory observation
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running tests on animals such as rats and pigeons in a very controlled setting to observe the result or reaction.
14
Q
Survey
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a questionnaire sent out to a large group of people
15
Q
Correlation Studies
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how are they connected? similar/different
16
Q
Experiment
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putting the scientific method into action. the idea is to try to control as many variables as possible in order to provide the most accurate result.
17
Q
Variable
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something you can change in order to affect the result of an experiment
18
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3 Research Errors
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observer effect, observer bias, observer expectancy effect
19
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Observer effect
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when someone knows he or she is being watched and then the individual changes his or her behavior
20
Q
Observer bias
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no research is completely unbiased; everyone has a reason for conducting research
21
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Observer expectancy effect
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when a certain outcome is expected
22
Q
Possible Errors in Any Research
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confounding variables, observation errors, recording errors, statistical analysis errors, and interpretation errors
23
Q
Confounding Variables
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something that you cannot exactly measure but it has an impact on your subject; can be something you can’t control
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Observational errors
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when you see something but it is not actually happening
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Recording Errors
when you write dow (or record) something wrong
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Statistical Analysis
when you mathematically compare your results
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Interpretation Errors
when you misread statistics
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Plato
Believed the sould could live separate from the body (later known as dualism); believed there was something inside people that needed to be investigated
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Aristotle
Body and soul are parts of the same underlying structure; comes from the holistic approach
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Gustav Fechner
Studied human perception and formed the basis for psychological research; first to dig into what people were thinking and feeling
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Wilhelm Wundt
First to apply scientific laboratory research to psychological principles--objective introspection; believed each individual has their own worldview/interaction style/thinking and that thoughts and emotions where the basics of the human mind
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Edward Titchener
structuralism; believed every experience could be broken down into its basic elements
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William James
functionalism; didn't care about how people felt, but interested in how people interacted with each other
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Types of Psychology
Psychoanalysis, behaviorism, cognitive psychology, humanistic psychology, sociocultural psychology
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personality
the unique way in which each individual things, acts, and feels throughout life
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Kluckhohn and Murray
believed that every human is like every other human being, like some other human beings, and like no other human being
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Nature
when your personality is determined by DNA
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Nurture
when your experiences create your personality
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Genetics
strictly nature driven
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Traits
can be changed by environment/situation
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Sociocultural determination
social norms influenced by culture
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Learning
how to interact with people, knowledge, etc.; its from experiences
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existential-humanistic considerations
something that can change your worldview
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unconcious mechanisms
things we don't understand or even think about
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cognitive processes
thinking; the physical process into thinking critically or the mental process into emotions
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Nature vs. Nurture
What makes up our personality?-- genetics, traits, sociocultural determinants, learning, existential-humanistic considerations, cognitive processes, and personality as a composite of factors
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Sigmund Freud
born in 1856 to father's 3rd wife who might have been pregnant with him before being married
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Sigmund Freud
graduated at the top of his high school class and attended medical school
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Sigmund Freud
heavily used cocaine for several years; when it was found out to be detrimental, he lost much of his medical credibility
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Sigmund Freud
Worked with Jean-Martin Charcot (1825-1893) to learn hypnotism to treat hysteria; began to theorize that a lot of our physical symptoms can have a psychological influence
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Sigmund Freud
Worked with Hippolyte Bernheim (1840-1919), who was creating posthypnotic amnesia in patients and using posthypnotic suggestion to treat hysteria; realized that through hypnosis they could have people forget things
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Sigmund Freud
Worked with Josef Breuer (1842-1925) at the University of Vienna. The case of Anna O. started psychoanalysis.
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Psychoanalysis
The "therapy" process developed by frued; used with mixed results; received heavy criticism then and today; has mixed support from research.
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Two principles of psychoanalysis
free association and dream analysis
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3 parts of personality
id, superego, and ego
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Id
the pleasure principle that is contained in humans from birth--oriented toward basic biological drives: food, water, sex, safety, etc.; its all about us
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superego
the ego ideal and conscience--enables people to think and desire to behave in ideal terms: the moral center of the personality; moral compass; helps to determine right and wrong
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ego
the reality principle that attemps to satisfy demands of the id, only in ways that will not lead to negative consequences
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3 parts of mind
conscious, preconscious, and unconcious
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conscious mind
all of the things of which a person is aware any given moment; similar to short term memory in which you have immediate access
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preconscious mind
level of the mind where all the information, events, and concerns are kept; where super ego lives; long term memory; like a filing cabinet
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unconscious mind
the part of the mind that remains hidden--surfacing only symbolically through dreams and in obsure ways; a lot of trauma is put here
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defense mechanisms
denial, repression, rationalization, reaction formation, displacement, regression, identification, compensation, sublimation
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denial
refusal to recognize or acknowledge a threatening situation
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repression
"pushing" threatening or conflicting events or situations out of conscious memory
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rationalization
making up acceptable excuses for unacceptable behavior
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reaction formation
forming an emotional reaction or attitude that is the opposite of one's threatening or unacceptable actual thoughts
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displacement
expressing feelings that would be threatening if directed at the real target onto a less threatening substitute target
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regression
falling back on childlike patterns as a way of coping with stressful situations
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identification
trying to become like someone else to deal with one's anxiety
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compensation
when a person tries to make up areas in which a lack is perceived by becoming superior in some other area
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sublimation
turning socially unacceptable behavior into acceptable behavior
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Freud's psychostages of development
each stage features a different erogenous zone. if the stage is not successfully negotiated, fixations may result
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Oral stage
occurs from birth to 1 or 1.5, focuses upon the mouth, and is dominated by the id; satisfies basic desires
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anal stage
occurs from 1, 1.5 to 3 and focuses upon withholding and releasing feces; ego develops here; potty training--if done appropriately will have balanced life, but if not then the child will rebel
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phallic stage
occurs from 3 to 6 and focuses on the penis; superego develops here; girls want one and boys are afraid of losing it
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latency stage
age 6 to the onset of puberty sexual feelings are repressed; cooties stage
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genital stage
puberty through adulthood--sexual feelings are manifest but aimed at peers and societal sex symbols
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free association
when Freud just had people talk about what was on their mind; tends to be on the idea of resistance (i.e. what they don't talk about)
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dream analysis
consists of condensation, displacement, secondary revision, manifest content, and latent content
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condensation
all of our thoughts, feelings, etc. is combined
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displacement
when a fear or anxiety is replaced by an object
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Freud in everyday life
consists of parapraxes that is an accident that was caused by our unconcsious mind and when Freudian slips are verbal
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Freud on religion and human nature
survival mechanism for the ignorant, outdated, humans are mainly biological organisms; our id would take over and goes back to the victorian era
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behaviorism
based on the thory of learning; everything learned is still in the mind somewhere; only considers external behavior
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learning
any relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience or practice; you experience something, practice it, and you've learned how to do it
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learning processes
classical conditioning and operant conditioning,
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classical conditioning
learning to make a reflex response to a stimulus other than the natural stimulus that normally produces it
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Components of Classical Conditioning
(1) Unconditioned stimulus: naturally occuring stimululs; (2) unconditioned response: reflexive response to unconditioned stimulus; (3) conditioned stimulus: when a neutral stimulus, through repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus, begins to cause the same kind of reflexive response; and (4) conditioned response: nearly identical (though sometimes a little weaker) than the conditioned response
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Principles of Classical Conditioning
(1) CS must precede UCS; (2) CS and UCS must come close together in time; (3) the neutral stimulus must be paired with the UCS repeatedly for conditioning to take place; and (4) the CS must be distinctive from other stimuli in order for conditioning to occur
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stimulus generalization
tendency to respond to a stimulus similar to original conditioned stimulus
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stimulus discrimination
learning to differentiate between conditioned stimuli and similar stimuli
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extinction
when the CS is presented without the UCS, eventually CR dies out
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spontaneous recovery
after extinction occurs, if you wait long enough and reintroduce the CS, the CR reappears (often briefly and weakly)
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higher-order conditioning
creating a second conditioned stimulus
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conditioned emotional resopnse
emotional responses can be conditioned the same way as physical responses
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Thorndike's Law of Effect
if an event is followed by a pleasant consequence it will tend to be repeated. if an event is followed by an unpleasant consequence, it will tend to not be repeated
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operant conditioning
the kind of conditioning that happens with voluntary behavior
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principles of operant conditioning
(1) operant conditioning depends upon developing voluntary behavior; (2) reinforcement is essential; (3) primary and secondary; and (4) positive and negative
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4 operant conditioning concepts
shaping, extinction, generalization, and spontaneous recovery
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shaping
small steps toward some ultimate goal are reinforced until the goal itself is reached
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extinction
involves the removal of the reinforcement
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generalization
when stimuli similar to the conditioned stimuli, trigger similar responses
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spontaneous recovery
the reoccurance of a conditioned behavior after extinction
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3 reinforcement schedules
(1) variable ratio schedule of reinforcement; (2) variable interval schedule of reinforcement; and (3) partial reinforcement effect
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variable ratio schedule of reinforcement
the number of responses prior to reinforcement changes every time
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variable interval schedule of reinforcement
the interval of time between when the organism responds and is reinforced varies
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partial reinforcement effect
behaviors that are rewarded only some of the time are more resistant to extinction
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punishment
any event or stimulus, that when following a response, causes that response to be less likely to happen again
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types of punishment
punishment by application, punishment by removal, and difference between punishment and negative reinforcement
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latent learning
learning that occurs but is not demonstrated until the organism is motivated to demonstrate it
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learned helplessness
the tendency to refuse to escape from a negative situation because of a history of repeated failures
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insight learning
the sudden perception of relationships that allows a problem to be suddenly solved
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observational learning
learning that can take place without actual performance
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Cognition
mental information that goes on in the brain when a person is organizing and attempting to understand information and communicating information to others
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components of cognition
mental images, concepts, heuristics, and problem solving
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mental images
every word heard is associated with an image in the mind
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Concepts
start to group things or organize things into a class of objects (groups or categories)
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Heuristics
rule of thumb or educated guess; quick way to do problem solving
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problem solving
final part of the process; where you go to organize and communicate
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Albert Bandura
wanted to understand why abuse carries on from generation to generation
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Walter Mischel
studied the importance of environmental exposure to learning; found that situational variable affected problem solving
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reciprocal determinism
personality is determined by the give and take interaction of three factors: behavior, environment, and personal/cognitive factors; came out of Bandura's work
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personal learning variables
competencies, encoding strategies and personal constructs, expectancies, subjective values, and self-regulatory systems and plans
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observational learning
attentional, retentional, motor reproduction, and motivational
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self-regulated behavior
performance standards; self-efficacy: a person's perception of how effective a given behavior will be in any particular circumstance; moral conduct; and delay gratification
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Humanistic Perspective
focuses upon things that make people uniquely human--such as emotion and the ability to choose; human beings are always striving for growth and fulfillment
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Abraham Maslow
believed traditional psychology concentrated on only the dark, negative, sick, and animalistic aspects of humans; said that if we want to discover the best in humans, we have to study the best humans--so he focused on "exceptional" subjects
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Humanistic Psychology
designed to focus on the positive aspects and provide a more balanced picture of human personality
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reductive-analytic approach of traditional psychology
reduces humans to a collection of habits and conflicts
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holistic-analytic approach of humanism
studies the person as a thinking and feeling totality; driven by the fullfillment of needs through choice, not as a puppet of the environment
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principles of humanistic psychology
the primary study of psychology should be the experiencing person; choice, creativity, and self-realization, rather than mechanistic reductionism, are the concern of the humanistic psychologist; only personally and socially significant problem should be studied; the major concern of psycholgy should be the dignity and enhancement of people
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self-concept
our ideas about ourselves as reflected to us by others through their words and actions
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real self
our evaluations of our characteristics, traits, and abilities
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ideal self
our perceptions of what we should be or would like to be
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unconditional positive regard
feeling loved and supported unconditionally
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fully funcitoning person
a person in the process of self-actualizing who actively explores potentials, abilities, and experiences a match between real and ideal selves
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Carl Rogers' Theory
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Abraham Maslow Theory
