Test 1 Flashcards
(108 cards)
1
Q
Social Conditions
A
- Various factors and circumstances characterize a society’s structure and dynamics.
- These conditions encompass a broad range of elements that influence how individuals and groups interact, live, and experience life within a given social context
2
Q
Revolution
A
- A fundamental and often rapid transformation in the social, political, and economic structures of a society.
- Involves significant changes that disrupt existing systems and institutions, leading to new ways of organizing and understanding social life.
3
Q
Change
A
- The alteration process in the structures, norms, values, and behaviours within a society over time.
- This concept encompasses various transformations that can affect various aspects of social life.
- Key aspects include social change, cultural change, economic change, political change, etc.
4
Q
Social/Political Forces
A
Concrete
Legal
Institutional
Physical
-Scientific Revolution, Democratic Revolution, Industrial Revolution, Socialism, Feminism
5
Q
Scientific Revolution
A
- Encouraged evidence-based conclusions about society.
- When sociology emerged in the 19th century – the “scientific method” of studying society was widely accepted.
6
Q
Evidence
A
the available body of facts or information indicating whether a belief or proposition is true or valid
7
Q
Scientific Method
A
the process of objectively establishing facts through testing and experimentation. The basic process involves making an observation, forming a hypothesis, making a prediction, conducting an experiment and finally analyzing the results.
8
Q
Objective and Subjective
A
Objective: measurable science (statistics, data, facts).
Subjective: non-quantifiable features of human life (emotions, changes, choices)
9
Q
Democratic Revolution
A
Suggested people were responsible for creating society; thus, human intervention was capable of solving social problems.
- American Revolution (1775–83) and the French Revolution (1789–99)
- Two theoretical views emerged 1) a hope for a return to the stability of the past 2) finding solutions for a new social order.
- The focus was now on ‘individual choice’ and individual agency, which allowed individuals to be responsible for society at large.
- Change and improve society
- Individualism
- Autonomy
10
Q
Individualism
A
Democratic Revolution
allowed individuals to be responsible for society at large. Refers to a social framework that emphasizes personal autonomy, independence, and self-reliance over group or collective interests.
11
Q
Autonomy
A
Democratic Revolution
Autonomy: A sense of ‘separateness’ that is found only when the ‘ideal actor’ participates fully and rationally in society. The individual learns ‘autonomy’ through education
12
Q
Industrial Revolution
A
- A series of interrelated transformations in the Western World.
- Change from an agricultural society to an overwhelming industrial complex (large industry – creating cities, societies, extracting material resources) – a capitalist economic system.
- Created a host of social problems; attracted the attention of social thinkers.
- technological development
- capitalism
- free marketplace
- exchange of goods
- rise in inequality
- seeking solutions
- urbanization and mobility
- religious decline
- decline in community
- colonization and slavery
13
Q
Technological Development
A
- Industrial Revolution
- Workers automatically exploited
- They bear the burden of unemployment due to technological changes, geographical shifts, and other economic dislocations, benefiting the capitalist.
14
Q
Capitalism
A
- Industrial Revolution
to create a “free marketplace” where products of industries could be exchanged. An economic system in which private individuals or businesses own and control the means of production, distribution, and exchange of goods and services, with the primary goal of generating profit.
15
Q
Free Marketplace
A
- Industrial Revolution
- An economic environment where goods and services are bought and sold with minimal government interference.
- prices, production, and distribution are determined by the forces of supply and demand, with businesses competing for consumers.
- promotes efficiency, innovation, and consumer choice, as businesses strive to meet market demands and maximize profits.
- also assumes that all participants have equal access to information and opportunities, which may not always be the case in practice.
16
Q
Exchange of Goods
A
- Industrial Revolution
refers to the process of trading products or commodities between individuals, businesses, or countries.
17
Q
Rise in inequality
A
- Industrial Revolution
the increasing disparity in income, wealth, and access to resources or opportunities between different groups within a society. - This is Marx’s main interest
18
Q
Seeking Solutions
A
Industrial Revolution
A theoretical view that emerged under the democratic revolution
19
Q
Urbanization and Mobility
A
Industrial Revolution
massive migration towards cities/urban centers.
20
Q
Religious Decline
A
Industrial Revolution
with the loss of intimate networks, facing inequality, many lost faith.
21
Q
Decline in Community
A
Industrial Revolution
weakening of social bonds, shared values, and collective identity within a group or neighborhood, often linked to modern societal changes.
- Factors include urbanization and cultural shifts.
22
Q
Colonialism and Slavery
A
Industrial Revolution
the rise of exploitation and slavery of indigenous populations.
23
Q
Socialism
A
- advocates the shared (community) ownership of the means of production (more equality), which is different from a capitalistic system the means of production are controlled by the few (greater hierarchy).
- Karl Marx was an active supporter of the (violent) overthrow of the capitalist system, in order to replace it with socialism.
- Weber and Durkheim, called for social reforms instead of the revolutionary upheaval that Marx wanted.
24
Q
Radical Ideas
A
- concepts or proposals that seek fundamental changes to existing social, political, or economic systems. These ideas often challenge the status quo by advocating for deep structural reforms or complete transformations in areas like governance, justice, or resource distribution.
- typically push for a shift from traditional norms, questioning power structures and systemic inequalities.
25
Revolutionary Ideas
- subset of radical thought, go further by calling for immediate and often forceful action to overturn current systems or regimes.
- They aim for sweeping and sometimes sudden changes, whether through political revolutions, social upheavals, or economic restructuring.
- Revolutionary movements historically have sought to dismantle existing power hierarchies and replace them with new systems—like overthrowing monarchies in favor of republics, or shifting from capitalism to socialism.
26
Feminism
The social world of the classical sociologists generally excluded the actions of women. Unpaid labour was important to the development of Capitalism and Industry.
Marx had ideas that influenced feminine thought.
27
Ideas of Men
Feminism
- With the development of capitalism, cities, and industry, a public sphere dominated by men and male activities was developed and predominated.
-The language of established classical theory largely remains the language of men.
28
Intellectual Forces
New ideas and ways of thinking. Enlightenment and Counter-Enlightenment, conservative reaction to the Enlightenment. Intellectual forces influenced the early developments of sociology.
29
Enlightenment
- Intellectual force
- new ideas and ways of thinking.
- Earliest Enlightenment thinkers reacted to the ideas of traditional authority, God, religion, etc.
- get rid of, or change, the ‘irrational ideas’ held in traditional societies.
- Thinkers created theories and ideas that they applied to the “real world”
- Thinkers went on to apply and test those theories by combining empirical research [observation] with reason.
- The way to move forward was to move away from God and focus on science
30
Dr. Edward Jenner
- Immunizations
- Known as the father of immunology
- famous for developing the world's first successful smallpox vaccine, which laid the foundation for the field of vaccinology.
- Used material from a cowpox sore.
31
Rich Intellectualizing
- used critically to describe scholars or thinkers who prioritize theoretical frameworks or ideas over practical social action, especially when these discussions do not seem relevant to the experiences of marginalized or everyday people.
32
French Revolution
- period of radical political and social upheaval in France that dismantled the monarchy, challenged aristocratic privilege, and led to the rise of republicanism and modern democratic ideals.
- lasting impact on global politics by promoting ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity, and it inspired subsequent revolutionary movements worldwide.
33
Philosophical Development
The evolution and progression of philosophical thought over time.
- It involves exploring fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, ethics, and human nature, with each era building on or reacting to the ideas of previous thinkers.
Ex. Enlightenment and Marx
34
Reactionary Science
- response to the dramatic social, political, and economic changes occurring in Europe during the late 18th and 19th centuries, particularly following the Enlightenment, the Industrial Revolution, and the French Revolution.
- These changes challenged traditional structures of authority and social order, leading to new ways of thinking about society, individuals, and their interactions.
35
Rejection of Religion
the declining influence of religious institutions, beliefs, and practices in society.
- This phenomenon, often termed secularization, involves a shift away from traditional religious authority and a move toward rational, scientific, and individualistic worldviews
36
Rejection of the Traditional
- Deliberate challenge or abandonment of long-established social norms, values, institutions, and practices.
- Enlightenment rejected traditional authority, God, and religion.
- Industrial revolution rejected traditional agrarian lifestyles and local economies. The Industrial Revolution uprooted rural communities and shifted economies toward mass production and urbanization.
- French Revolution rejected the absolute monarchy, aristocratic privilege, and the traditional feudal system in France.
37
Aim for a ‘better’ more ‘rational’ world
Through Enlightenment
- The aim was to get rid of, or change, the ‘irrational ideas’ held in traditional societies.
38
Counter-Enlightenment
- Aim to uphold traditional values and the status quo.
- Aim to maintain a focus on the “non-rational” experiences of social life.
- Counter-Enlightenment thinkers were shaken by the shifting conditions of their societies.
- They want to return to the ordered societies they once knew.
- Most feared (were opposed to) the “rational” ideas proposed by the Enlightenment
- In their view “non-rational” factors in society – such as rituals, ceremonies, worship etc. – should not be overlooked.
- Conservativists
- Disliked chaos and wanted to retain the existing order
- Believed science was leading to disorder
39
Conservative Reaction to Enlightenment
- Believed science was leading to disorder.
- characterized by a rejection of the radical changes to society, politics, and thought that the Enlightenment promoted.
- Conservatives criticized key Enlightenment ideals such as reason, individualism, secularism, and egalitarianism, and instead advocated for preserving traditional social hierarchies, institutions, and values.
- The conservative reaction was deeply concerned with maintaining social stability and order, fearing that Enlightenment ideas would lead to chaos and societal breakdown.
40
Catholic Counterrevolutionary
The most extreme form of opposition to Enlightenment ideas as represented by the ideas of Louis de Bonald and Joseph de Maistre. Feared and hated social disorder.
- Opposed revolutionary change.
- Efforts aimed to defend traditional Catholic values, social hierarchies, and institutions, especially the monarchy and the Church's authority, against the challenges posed by secularism, democracy, and the rise of individual rights.
41
Non-rational Factors still relevani
- Counter enlightenment thinkers believed non-rational factors should not be overlooked.
Ex. Rituals, ceremonies, worship.
- These factors are still relevant to this day.
42
Who disliked Chaos and wanted to maintain social order?
Counter-enlightenment thinkers
43
De-sanctification
- the process through which something that was previously considered sacred or imbued with religious significance is rendered secular or ordinary.
- This concept often applies to various contexts, including religion, culture, and society.
44
Mix of ‘enlightenment’ and ‘counter enlightenment’
- stance that combines elements of both rationalism, progress, and individual rights (central to the Enlightenment) with a skepticism of reason, tradition, and community values (central to the Counter-Enlightenment).
Comte has a mix of both in his thinking.
45
August Comte
- Coined the term sociology.
- His new scientific view encouraged positivism.
- He encouraged the use of statistics and understanding social change.
- Social reform (gradual change) was more important than revolutionary change.
- Believed society would develop naturally.
-Created the “Evolutionary Theory”
- calls for "secular religious views" (no religion)
- systemic in his thinking
46
“System de Politique Positive”:
a form of secular religion(non religious). Comte’s believed the world could be reformed around this.
47
Sociologist Priests
- what Comte believed the world could be lead by. - Sociologists playing a central moral and intellectual role in guiding society, much like priests did in religious institutions.
- Ex. of this: Teacher is the sociologist priest, students are the deciphals
48
Social Physics
Sociology.
- the scientific study of society, aiming to apply the methods of the natural sciences (like physics) to understand and explain social phenomena.
49
Gradual Social Reform
- changes through policy
- use of sociology
- Comte believed it was more important than revolutionary change
50
Natural and gradual change/evolution of society
foundation of Comte's Evolutionary theory
51
Law of Three Stages
Comte’s evolutionary theory. outlines the intellectual evolution of human thought and society.
- According to Comte, societies progress through three distinct stages of thinking as they evolve, each characterized by different ways of understanding the world.
- Theological
- Metaphysical
- Positivistic
52
Theological
- Supernatural and religious powers were admired, and the social and physical world was seen to be produced by God.
- People looked to God-not to themselves/ community/ society.
Under this stage is also:
- Fetishism (belief in some living spirits),
- Polytheism (belief in several Gods and natural/human forces), and
- Monotheism (belief in one God who is supreme).
53
Metaphysical
- God is an abstract being, therefore not the cause of every phenomenon.
- Rationality develops during this stage, but is not founded on concrete observations. People wanted more information, but it wasn’t written down, so it was more so passed around through stories
- THINK FOLKLORE
54
Positivistic
- This stage is founded on scientific knowledge and based upon facts.
- Facts are gathered by observation and experiences (studying society through observation).
55
Chaos would Dissipate
Comte believed that chaos would dissipate as society transitioned into the Positive Stage of intellectual and social development, which is characterized by the dominance of science, reason, and empirical knowledge over superstition, metaphysical speculation, and religious authority.
- Comte saw the chaotic periods in history as the result of conflicts between outdated theological and metaphysical thinking, and believed that as society embraced the scientific method and rational thinking, social order would naturally be restored.
56
French Sociology
- refers to the tradition of sociological thought that originated and developed in France, heavily influenced by thinkers such as Auguste Comte, Émile Durkheim, and Pierre Bourdieu.
- French sociology focuses on understandding social structures, collective behavior, and the ways society shapes individual actions.
- known for its emphasis on both theoretical frameworks and empirical research, combining the study of social order, power, and individual behavior within broader societal contexts.
57
Critique of Comte
- over emphasis on positivism
- his view of societal progression is seen as overly simplistic
- neglects individual agency
- emphasis on stability neglects the need for social conflict and change
- sociologist as priests (authority figures) is considered authoritarian and impractical
- focus too much on social structures than how societies adapt and change over time.
Durkheim critiqued him for relying on preconceived ideas of social phenomena instead of actually studying the real world
58
Did religion go away?
religion has not gone away, but its role, influence, and expressions have transformed significantly over time. Secularization.
59
Positivism
- an approach in sociology (philosophy) that relies on empirical evidence (experiments and statistics).
- The aim is to reveal how society functions – in an objective and logical way.
- Positivism originates from the French philosophers and sociologists Henri de Saint Simone, August Comte, and Emile Durkheim.
60
Empirical Evidence
- information and data gathered through direct observation, experimentation, or experience rather than theory or belief. Backs up social facts.
61
Emile Durkheim
- "Division of Labour in Society"
- "Rules of Sociological Method"
- Social facts
- identifying material and non-material social facts.
- His greatest preoccupation is with non-material (invisible) social facts.
Central focuses were:
- What keeps societies together?
- What is the most relevant to the study of social behaviour – material or non-material social facts?
- Why is ‘sui generis’ (Latin for of its own kind) relevant to social facts?
62
Social Order
- the systematic and organized ways in which society maintains stability, coherence, and predictability among its members.
- It encompasses the structures, norms, values, and institutions that regulate individual behavior and social interactions, allowing society to function smoothly.
A major concern of classic theorists, especially Durkheim and Comte.
- Durkheim wanted to restore order.
- Democratic revolution aimed to find solutions for a new social order.
63
Ordering of Ideas
- systematic arrangement and prioritization of concepts, theories, and perspectives that help to understand and analyze social phenomena.
- essential for building frameworks that guide research, policy-making, and theoretical development.
64
Social Facts
- consist of manners of acting, thinking and feeling external to the individual, which are invested with a coercive power by which they exercise control over him.
- common to all, not reduced to individuals
- change over time
- Are external to the individual and have compelling and coercive powers over individual action.
- Material social facts and non-material social facts.
- Study social facts as ‘things’
65
Empirically Studied
- experiments and statistics.
- You don’t have social facts without empirical evidence backing it up.
66
Using social facts to create sociology
- Durkheim proposed that the distinctive subject matter of sociology should be the study of social facts in order to help sociology move away from philosophy and to give it a clear and separate identity.
- Crucial in separating sociology from philosophy is the idea that social facts are to be treated as “things” and studied empirically.
67
How can social facts be used as tools to understand society?
providing objective, measurable phenomena that reveal the underlying structures and dynamics within social life.
68
What are social forces that influence individuals lives?
- external factors that shape an individual's behaviors, beliefs, opportunities, and life outcomes.
- These forces come from the broader social, economic, political, and cultural contexts in which people live.
- They influence individuals in powerful and often subtle ways, affecting their decisions, relationships, and overall life experiences.
These are social facts
69
How are individuals products of society?
-They are shaped by the social facts that govern behavior, influence identity, and create opportunities and constraints.
- Through socialization and interaction with social structures, individuals internalize societal norms and values, ultimately becoming reflections of the societies they inhabit.
70
Non-material social facts
- not directly observable
- Social facts which do not have a material reality. - They consist of features such as religion, norms, values, and systems of morality and or ‘social conventions’.
- empirically observable, they are brought to life only through studying social interactions, observing the social world, gathering data.
- Ex. Specific expectations in certain situations.
- Also include morality, collective conscience, collective representation and social currents.
71
Un-written social conventions
- The informal rules, norms, and expectations that govern behaviour within a society or group but are not formally codified or explicitly stated.
- These conventions shape how individuals interact with one another and navigate social situations.
72
Material Social Facts
- directly observable
- Have material reality
- Include structures & institutions such as systems of law, the economy, the structure of the church, the state and educational institutions.
o Material social facts such as bureaucracy and law – these are the real (institutionalized) logics of the society at large.
o Ex. Specific rules or regulations that support social agreement.
o Ex. Specific places, organizations that help society function.
73
What holds people together?
- Non-material social facts keep society together (agreement, solidarity).
- Shows what is stable even in moments of instability.
- We are held together by the roles we take on, the jobs we do, our labour makes us interdependent.
74
What are the purpose of social facts?
- enhance our understanding of society by providing measurable, objective data that illuminate the relationships, structures, and dynamics that shape human behavior and social life.
- Through the study of social facts, sociologists can analyze, explain, and address the complexities of the social world.
75
Durkheim's Sociology: Laws
o Collective ideas and actions must be studied as separate from any one individual, and must be subject (extracted) to their own laws
o Social facts should be identifiable by certain characteristics common to all social facts
o Social facts should be identified beyond unique individuals
o Social facts should be identified by their ability to constrain individuals in societies
o Social facts continue to exist when they influence individuals
76
What holds society together
- material facts
- Division of labour, solidarity in different ways. Modern societies are held together by mutual interdependence because individuals to different/specialized tasks (ex. Pilot, chef, singer)
77
Why is an objective measure of study required with social facts?
- You don’t decide if a social fact exists and how it manifests.
- You extrapolate the data and make sure it isn’t skewed.
- Leave the twist of your mind out of it.
- Look at the facts as they exist and be highly objective.
- You are applying a system to your study.
- bias vs. objectivity
78
Rules of Sociological Methods
- Manifesto on behalf of the 'cause of a sociology that is objective, specific, and methodical'
- Always study social facts as ‘things’ (sui genris) -- Understand social facts as above/beyond individuals
- Study ‘social facts’ methodically and consistently
- Find data and patterns (normal & pathological)
- Aim to be unbiased, objective, and neutral
79
Morality
- non-material social facts
- can be studied empirically
- is external to any one individual
- holds coercive power
- can constrain individual passions.
* Self-gratification
* ‘to be free’ as participating and functional members of society
* Member of society
* 3 elements of morality: discipline, attachment, and autonomy
80
Discipline
- element of morality
- A sense of authority over idiosyncratic/irrational impulses
- The individual is ‘happier’ because morality limits their personal desires (always wanting more)
81
Attachment
-element of morality
- A sense of attachment to society or to social group
- The individual belongs and therefore feels the positive aspects of group commitment
82
Autonomy (morality)
- A sense of ‘separateness’ that is found only when the ‘ideal actor’ participates fully and rationally in society
- The individual learns ‘autonomy’ through education
83
Education
(according to Durkheim): the process by which the individual learns the physical, intellectual, and moral tools required to function in society. Learn how to restrain their impulses, and learn a sense of devotion to the society
Durkheim argues
- A ‘moral attitude’ can be learned
- The classroom allows individuals the opportunity to cultivate the different elements of morality
- A moral education allows individuals the opportunity to learn how to restrain their impulses
- A moral education allows individuals the opportunity to learn ‘a sense of devotion’ to the society
- A moral education allows individuals to develop a sense of ‘autonomy’ - freedom within the limits that are pre-determined
84
Collective Conscience
- non-material social facts
beliefs, ideas and sentiments about shared members of a community. It is part of a shared ‘morality’ [all embracing concept]
* Learned
* Guides behavior
85
Collective Representation
- non-material social facts
- serve to maintain social order and identity
change over time but are continually tied to how the social group shares and expresses their collective ideas.
- more stable and enduring
* Relates to group emotion
* Not tied to one individual
* Connects to material symbols, rituals, common ideas/sentiments/notions
* Ex. A flag, specific religious symbols, common proverbs or sayings, cultural myths or stories passed on.
86
Social Currents
- non-material social facts
* Reflect momentary emotional responses and can lead to changes in social dynamics.
* Emerged out of social interactions
* Moods shared by a group
* l’esprit collectif or “collective mind”
* Collective effervescence (enthusiasm)
* Mob behaviour
* Can fuel change based on social conditions, events, or collective emotions.
* fluid and can change quickly
87
Division on Labour in Society
- Emile Durkheim
- Held together by increasing inter-dependence
- Held together cause individuals do different/specialized tasks
*Specialized tasks: chef, pilot singer
- Has a moral character
- creates a feeling of solidarity between two or more people
- held together by the roles we take on, the jobs we do, our labour makes us inter- dependent.
Thesis: modern society is not held together by the similarities between people who do basically similar things. Instead, it is the division of labor itself that pulls people together by forcing them to be dependent on each other.
88
Solidarity
- non-material
- mechanical solidarity
- organic solidarity
89
Mechanical Solidarity
- Individuals are ‘mechanically’ and ‘automatically’ bound together. There are few personal differences, little competition, high equality.
- A simple machine (past)
90
Organic Solidarity
* Differences are more pervasive, similarities are less apparent, people are held together by mutual need and ‘abstract ideas’ and fewer beliefs or sentiments.
- A complex organism (present)
- This is found under capitalism
- See society as an organ…much more complex than just mechanical solidarity
- Held together by more specialized tasks
* Dynamic density more people interacting (urbanization)
* Increases specialized tasks
* Increased efficiency / productivity
91
Pathological, unnatural, problematic
- Efficiency, stability, predictability does not always mean “good”.
- Durkheim recognizes that there are “abnormal” “pathological” states even when society functions well.
- Pathological “abnormal”: problematic, unnatural, abnormal, indicative of disease.
He identified three abnormal forms: (1) the anomic division of labor, (2) the forced division of labor, and (3) the poorly coordinated division of labor.
92
Anomic division of labour
the lack of regulation in a society that celebrates isolated individuality and refrains from telling people what they should do.
93
Anomie
Durkheim definition: social conditions in which humans lack sufficient moral restraint.
- lack of the usual ethical or social standards in a group or individual
- A ‘pathological state’ in society caused by social instability and personal unrest from insufficient normative regulation of individual activities.
- without norms, life becomes meaningless
94
Rapid Shift
95
New Normal
96
Forced Division of Labour
- Individuals should be able to achieve the positions which are the most ‘true’ or consistent with their natural abilities.
- If they take on roles that are “not true” this indicates that they are being ‘forced’ to participate in a role they are not well suited for.
-Not consistent with 'natural' abilities
97
Specialized Tasks
98
Not forced if it develops 'spontaneously'
99
Inequality can be NORMAL
In short, inequality is "normal" when it reflects the different ways people contribute to society based on their natural capacities, and it becomes problematic only when it is artificially exaggerated by factors like discrimination, privilege, or social injustice.
100
Normal = stable
101
“When I fulfil my obligations as brother, husband, or citizen, when I execute my contracts, I perform duties which are defined, externally to myself and my acts, in law and in custom. Even if they conform to my own sentiments and I feel their reality subjectively, such reality is still objective, for I did not create them; I merely inherited them through my education. ... These types of conduct or thought are not only external to the individual but are, moreover, endowed with coercive power, by virtue of which they impose themselves upon him, independent of his individual will. ( pp. 1-2) A social fact is every way of acting, fixed or not, capable of exercising on the individual an external constraint; ... every way of acting which is general throughout a given society, while at the same time existing in its own right independent of its individual manifestations.”
Durkheim
102
“The bourgeoisie cannot exist without constantly revolutionizing the instruments of production, and thereby the relations of production, and with them the whole relations of society. Conservation of the old modes of production in unaltered forms, was, on the contrary, the first condition of existence for all earlier industrial classes. Constant revolutionizing of production, uninterrupted disturbance of all social conditions, everlasting uncertainty and agitation, distinguish the bourgeois epoch from all earlier ones. All fixed, fast-frozen relations, with their train of ancient and venerable prejudices and opinions, are swept away; all new-formed ones become antiquated before they can ossify. All that is solid melts into air, all that is holy is profaned, and man is at last compelled to face with sober senses his real conditions of life and his relations with his kind.”
Marx
103
“They come to each one of us from outside and can sweep us along in spite of ourselves”
Durkheim
104
“What constitutes social facts are the beliefs, tendencies and practices of the group taken collectively”
Durkheim
105
“For sociology...to exist, there must occur in every society phenomena of which this society is the specific cause, phenomena which would not exist if this society did not exist and which are what they are only because this society is constituted the way it is”
Durkheim
106
“the way in which facts are classified does not depend on him [the investigator and sociologist] and the particular twist of his mind, but on the nature of things”
Durkheim
107
“We may say that the division of labour produces solidarity only if it is spontaneous and in proportion as it is spontaneous....In short, labor is divided spontaneously only if society is constituted in such a way that social inequalities exactly express natural inequalities. ... It consists, not in a state of anarchy which would permit men freely to satisfy all their good or bad tendencies, but in a subtle organization in which each social value, being neither overestimated nor underestimated by anything foreign to it, would be judged at its worth.”
Durkheim
108
