Test 1 Flashcards

Question

Hippocrates

Answer 1

- Earlier Empedocles proposed body is made of four elements - Earth: solid parts of body - Water: liquids in body - Air: breath of life - Fire: reasoning - Hippocrates expanded that to include four humors - Earth/Black Bile (normal sediment of blood) - Water/Phlegm (all other liquids in body) - Air/Blood - Fire/Yellow Bile (produced in liver) - Ailments have a natural (not supernatural) cause; imbalance in humors - Physician’s job is to facilitate (not interfere with) body’s natural ability to self-heal (i.e., rest, proper diet, exercise, fresh air, massage, baths) - Emphasize treating the patient, not a disease - The Hippocratic Oath - Modern view: a promise and guideline - Other oaths do exist - Tied into current psychology (ex: don’t talk about patients to other people; don’t turn people away because they’re poor or you don’t like them) - An oath sets the standard for an ethical code

Answer 2

- Associated the four humors with four temperaments - Beginnings of a personality theory - Connection to Psychology: - Black bile (melancholic) makes one pensive, melancholic and withdrawn; promotes realism, pessimism, etc. - Phlegm (phlegmatic) induces passivity, lethargy, subjectivity devotion, sensitivity, emotionality - Blood (sanguine) promotes feelings of joy, optimism, enthusiasm, affection, wellbeing - Yellow bile (choleric) provokes passions (e.g., anger, boldness, jealousy, courage)

Answer 3

- Professional teachers of rhetoric and logic - Focus on nature of truth - Saw truth as “relative”; in other words, subjective, so no single truth exists - Connection to modern psych: differences in perception of reality - Ex: son feels he gets no attention, but parents say they give him tons of attention; both are right, just different perceptions - Ex: Protagoras - truth depends upon perceiver - perceptions vary from person-to-person and is influenced by culture - you have to understand person to understand his/her beliefs - nothing is, therefore, false - Ex: Gorgias - knowledge (truth) is subjective so all things are false - since you only know your perceptions, there’s no basis for determining truth - Ex: Xenophanes - truth and religion - humans create “truth” and humans create religion, therefore, moral codes are not divinely inspired - evidence: Olympian gods were suspiciously human in form, behavior, and emotion

Answer 4

- Believed truth exists beyond personal opinion - ”Essence” is the ideal - Promoted the use of the inductive definition in defining the essence of such things as beauty, justice, and truth (What is the universal ideal of a concept?) - Searching for the commonality in all examples of a concept - examine instances of a concept - ask the question: What is it that all instances have in common? - Find the essence of the instances of the concept - Essence is its true nature -- a universally accepted definition of a concept; enduring, identifiable characteristics - For Socrates, essences constitute knowledge - Assumption that one knows nothing → ask challenging questions in the discovery of knowledge/truth - Oracle story: Who’s wisest man? Socrates. He didn’t believe it, so he went to ask everybody what they knew. They knew nothing, but he was the only one to say he didn’t know anything, so he figured that’s why he was chosen.

Answer 5

- Socratic Method/Socratic Dialogue - Form of cooperative, argumentative dialogue between individuals - Asking and answering questions to stimulate critical thinking and to draw out ideas and underlying presumptions - Allows one to think about concepts in a new light and critically evaluate his/her own thinking and the thinking of others - Therapist’s job is to guide client using Socratic questioning

Answer 6

- Technique: Socratic Questioning - used in cognitive restructuring, mindfulness training, etc. - cognitive reconstructing: helping person look at their thinking and helping them alter the way they’re thinking - mindfulness training: increases awareness of mind - can be used as part of therapeutic dialogue - can be used as homework assignment

Answer 7

- Influenced by Pythagoreans - Pythagorean theory is true (perfect) in the ideal, but it isn’t completely true in the real world (textbook example of triangles) - Plate tried to address that with the Theory of Forms - Everything in the real world is a manifestation of a pure form (idea) that exists in the abstract - Sound like essence? He corresponded forms as things that exist independent of nature and can only be arrived at through introspection -Forms (ideas) actually exist and are the reality (being) of which the observed and material world (becoming) is simply a shadowy copy - Therefore, universe is divided into two different realms - intelligible world of ideas and forms (being) - perceptual world we see around us (becoming) - Perceptual world, and all things in it, are imperfect copies of intelligible forms that exist in an ideal world - Forms/ideas are unchangeable and perfect, and are only known by the use of intellect (via introspection) - Attain true knowledge (truth) - Ignore sensory experiences - Focus on content of mind - Introspection (looking within) - Reminiscence (remembering experiences of the soul before it entered body) - Prior to coming to body, the soul dwlt in pure, complete knowledge -Therefore, truth is innate

Answer 8

- Demonstrates how difficult it is to deliver humans from ignorance - ”Ignorance is bliss”

Answer 9

-Contrary to Plato, essences can be best known by studying nature - To understand any thing, one must understand four aspects of it (its causes) - Material cause: matter in which it is made - Formal cause: force that transforms matter (what is it?) - Efficient cause: force that transforms matter (who made it?) - Final cause: purpose (why it exists) - Entelechy: everything has a purpose (function) built into it - This keeps an object moving and developing in its prescribed direction to full attention - Doesn’t equate into evolution, more similar to destiny

Answer 10

-Sensation and reason vs. memory and recall

Answer 11

- Emphasized the importance of the senses - They provide information - Common sense - Coordinates and synthesizes information from the senses into something meaningful - Passive reason - uses synthesized experience to function in everyday life - more like automatic processing - Active reason - uses synthesized experience to abstract principle and essences (highest form of thinking) - used to achieve purpose (entelechy) - more like effortful memory

Answer 12

- Remembering - Spontaneous recollection - Recall - Mental search for past events - Laws of Association (talks a lot about explicit memory) - Law of contiguity (tend to think of things that were experiences along with it) - Law of similarity (tend to think of similar things) - Law of contrast (tend to think of opposite things) - Law of frequency (associations strongest when experiences occur together)

Answer 13

-Greek divided into city-states -- Sparta, Athens, Thebes, and Corinth - Fall into decline during Hellenistic period - Different governments and shifting alliances - Some warring between city-states - Poorer classes rebelled against the aristocracy and the wealthy - In a word, Greece became fragmented - Rome becomes stronger and invades Greek territory - Move away from Greek focus on philosophy - Philosophy now driven by the situation this time - Shift from abstract, but to the practical - How can one live a good life now? - Resulted in: - Skeptics - Cynics - Epicureans - Stoics - Christians

Answer 14

- Not thrilled with dogmatists (anymore claiming to have arrived at an indisputable truth) - Proposed that there are equally compelling arguments for and against any philosophical doctrine - Can pretty much prove anything is false; just don’t believe in anything - Whatever one believed, it could turn out to be false - Avoid frustration by not believing in anything - Life guided not by truth, but by - Appearances (sensations and feelings) -- not interested in the essence - Convention (traditions, laws, customs)

Answer 15

- Diogenes - Non-human animals are best model for human conduct - All needs are natural, making their satisfaction straightforward - Do not have religion - Felt religion was an obstacle to happiness - Nature, not social conventions, should guide human behavior - People are a citizen of the world, not a country - Focus on individualism - Social conventions are human inventions that can cause greed, guilt, shame, etc.

Answer 16

-Philosophy of materialism, free will, no supernatural influences in the world, and no afterlife - Goal of life is individual happiness, but not pure hedonism - Strive for tranquility that comes from balance between a lack or an excess of anything; life of moderation - Freedom from pain, worry, fear, confusion, etc., not necessarily chase after pleasures - The good life was free, simple, rational, and moderate and to be lived now because there was nothing else after death - Can sound like hedonism (maximize pleasure; selfish), but it’s more like pleasure in moderation and seeking to live good life

Answer 17

- Zeno of Citium and Marcus Aurelius - Stoicism: bravery in the face of adversity; have control over your own way to deal with external issues (external issues we can’t control) - The good life means accepting one’s fate with indifference even if suffering is involved - Must accept one’s circumstances, etc. - One doesn’t have control over the events - BUT one can control the approach to the events -Aiming for tranquility of mind, virtue, tolerance, and self-control

Answer 18

- Cardinal virtues: - practical wisdom - temperance - justice - courage - Not a self-centered philosophy - Related to REBT

Answer 19

- Ex: stoic optimism: you are presenting, and you mess up. You can get embarrassed and upset, or use it as a time to realize and practice humility - Look at bad occurrences as opportunities (to grow, to learn, etc.)

Answer 20

- Stoic philosophy is one of the roots of several psychotherapeutic techniques - Earlier Ted-ED video mentioned specific avenues: - REBT (CBT) - Frankl’s Logotherapy (Humanist) - Ties to positive psychology - Remember characteristics we discussed - Julian Rotter’s Locus of Control - External locus of control - Belief that behavior is guided by fate, luck, or other external factors - Internal locus of control - Belief that behavior is guided by personal decisions and efforts

Answer 21

- ”Dark Age” - Only applies to Western world (Europe?) - Simultaneously, Islam became powerful force - Islamic philosophers studied Greek and Roman texts - In the west, Greek and Roman books/knowledge were lost - Little or no progress in science, philosophy, and literature - Europe became dominated by mysticism, superstition, and anti-intellectualism; faith based - Church dogma became very powerful because it was no longer challenged - Crusades (end of Dark Ages) resulted in “rediscovery” of Aristotle’s writings, which are preserved by Arab, Muslim thinkers - Shift would come back to a focus of inquiry and reemergence of science not in the service of theology

Answer 22

- Several influences from India and Persia on Roman culture during the time of Roman Empire - Vendatism: perfection could be approximated by entering into semi-ecstatic trances (seems like tribe) - Zoroastrianism: individuals are caught in an eternal struggle between wisdom/correctness and ignorance/evil - Judaism: one God with an interest in human affairs and a strict code of behavior for which one could be rewarded or punished - As Roman Empire began to crumble, Roman people looked to a new way to define the “good life” - A look toward the heavens

Answer 23

-Jesus taught that the knowledge of good and evil is revealed by God and should guide human conduct - St. Paul - first to proclaim that Jesus was the Messiah - Valued faith above reason - Mind is caught between the body and the spirit; conflict is the natural consequence - READ ABOUT HIM -Emperor Constantine - made Christianity a tolerated religion in Roman Empire - St. Augustine - combined stoicism, neoplatonism, Judaism, and Christianity into a powerful Christian world view that lasted until 13th century - Goal of human existence is to enter into a personal, emotional, union with God

Answer 24

-Purified, passive mind receives true knowledge through divine illumination

Answer 25

- Proposed a dualistic nature of man, with body similar to animals and spirit close to or part of God - This became the struggle between God and Satan for human souls -Humans have ability to choose between good and evil (The Will) -- today, this is morality - All people have an internal sense that provides an awareness of truth, error, personal obligation, and moral right - Behavior is under internal control, not a consequence of external events and consequences

Answer 26

- Discovery of Aristotle’s work and reconciliation of faith and reason - Scholasticism: synthesis of Aristotle’s work (reason) and Christian theology - St. Thomas Aquinas - Brought Aristotle’s work into church dogma - Reason and faith are separate entities, but can lead to the same thing -- God and His glory - Influential thinking, but it backfired - His goal: strengthen position of church through reason - Instead, gave philosophers support that faith and reason could be studied separately - Reason could be studied without considering theological implications - Why’d it backfire? We can take that out, and study it seperately - Philosophy without religious overtones became mainstay - Opened the framework for scientific inquiry

Answer 27

-William of Occam - Razor: a guiding principle that helps philosophers shave away unlikely or useless explanations for a phenomena - In philosophy, ideas is to use the explanation that makes the fewest assumptions - Explanations should always be kept parsimonious (simple); philosophical take that simplest explanation is best - We can trust our senses directly in understanding our world - Doesn’t claim which theories are true, but it is a rule of thumb when decide which theory to use - Also used by earlier figures (Aristotle, St. Thomas Aquinas) - Still influential today. Makes phenomena more testable. Important contribution to philosophy and science - Parceloni

Answer 28

- End of “The Dark Age” - Acceptance of reason and examination of nature as ways of knowing God - Humanist philosophy - Renaissance shift from God-centered to human-centered - Exploration - Marco Polo’s exploration of central Asia and China - Discovery of the New World by Columbus - Magellan’s circumnavigation of the gloe - Invention of moveable type of Gutenberg - Considered the greatest invention because: - Without it, literacy cannot grow, knowledge slow to spread, allowed for mass production in a wider scope, etc.

Answer 29

- Geocentric system of the universe - Earth is at center of everything - Belief lasted for many centuries because: - It matched what senses perceived - It allowed for reasonable astronomical predictions - It coincided with Christian theology with man as center of universe -However, Aristarchus of Samos concluded that earth rotates on its own axis and revolves around sun along with rest of plants, and by about 1700 years, this idea pre-dates that of…

Answer 30

-Proposed heliocentric universe - Contradicted church dogma - Interesting because he was a Christian monk -He wasn’t popular because he/it went against church/religion/God

Answer 31

- Proved that mathematical details of Copernican system; mapped out planetary elliptical orbits - Predicted Newton’s concept of gravity through observing planetary velocities

Answer 32

- Universe is a complex, lawful machine created by God who then set it in motion, after which He ceased involvement (deism) - Used mathematics to develop universal law of gravitation (Einstein later revised it) - Material world is governed by natural laws, that are absolute

Answer 33

- Used scientific observation and mathematical deduction to describe the laws of the universe - Develops a hypothesis and then tests it - Caused people to consider human experiences as inferior to natural world - Influence on modern science

Answer 34

Reality - Objective - Exists independent of individual’s perception - Includes what later would be called primary qualities (e.g., quantity, shape, size, position, motion) - Can be measured objectively - Subjective - Psychological experiences via sensing organs - Subjective, relative, and fluctuating - Later called secondary qualities (e.g., color, sound, temperature, taste) - Names used to describe subjective qualities - Secondary qualities because we all have different experiences - Cannot be measured objectively Conscious Experience - Can’t be studied by objective methods - It’s a secondary quality - What is real is the world outside of man, not the conscious experience - Perceptions (sensory experiences) are “deceitful” - Mathematical laws are necessary for knowledge - Can only be measured if tangible - Hard sciences: natural sciences (bio, chem, etc.) - Soft sciences: liberal arts (psychology, sociology, poli sci., etc.)

Answer 35

- Demanded that science be based on induction rather than deduction, as Galileo proposed - Make careful, systematic observations to produce facts - Generalize them to axioms (a statement regarded as truth) - Science should only include direct observations of nature - No theories, no hypotheses, or deductive methods - Thought these would lead to biases in observations - Beginnings of scientific method

Answer 36

- Idols of the cave - Personal biases (e.g., likes, dislikes) - Idols of the tribe - Human nature biases (e.g., exaggeration, distortion) - Perceive more order than actually exists - False notions that we do everyday because it is inherited by our nature and our mind - Idols of the marketplace - Biases based upon the use of words/language - Misinterpreting words leads to misunderstanding and confusion - Idols of the theater - Biases from blind allegiance to any viewepoint; blind bias based on predetermined notions of the world - False learning from scientific beliefs, theories, religion, etc. - False teachings create false beliefs - Bacon looked at bias! Where does it come from? Etc. - Bacon took a big step with looking at bias

Answer 37

- Science should provide useful information - Applied Research: directed toward solving practical problems - Basic Research: involves studies that are intended to solve theoretical issues - Science should improve the world for the betterment of mankind (humankind) - What do these mean to you? - basic research: you can do it to improve humanity to make it better - Skinner and behavior analysis - Adopted Baconian inductive methods - Adopted the view that science’s main goals is to improve the human condition -Bacon was ahead of his time in insisting scientists should avoid bias (next slide)

Answer 38

Non Scientific Approaches - Method of Tenacity - relies on info accepted as true because it has always been believed or because superstition supports it (ex: you can’t teach old dog new tricks) - Limits: potential inaccuracies; no method for correcting erroneous ideas - Method of Intuition - Relies on info based upon a hunch (ex: a gut feeling) - Limits: no method for separating accurate from inaccurate knowledge - Method of Authority - Relies on info or answers from an expert in the field - Limits: information not always accurate (personal biases); no all “experts” are experts - May accept statement as fact (method of faith) Sources of Scientific Error - The researcher (bias) - The subjects (bias; being dishonest; not cooperative) - The environment (lighting, smell, etc.) - the instruments

Answer 39

- Engaged in self-exploration to find philosophical truth - using system of doubts to determine certainties (truths) - only certain thing is doubt, but doubting was thinking and that needs a thinker -- “I think, therefore, I am” Cogito, ergo sum) -Concept of innate ideas (from his own deep reflection) -some thoughts are so clear and distinct in absence of personal experience -- they must be true and natural components of mind -in response to perfect idea: “The only hypothesis left was that this idea was put in my mind by a nature that was really more perfect than I was, which had all the perfections that I could imagine, and which was, in a word, God.” - Reality and the Senses - info from the senses can be accepted because “God would not deceive us” but sensory info should be rationally analyzed in order to determine its validity - Descartes was a rationalist, a nativist (innate ideas), and phenomenologist (introspectively study nature of intact, conscious experience) - You can kinda rely on your senses, but you can rationally examine your senses

Answer 40

- Believed the nervous system was a set of hollow tubes (threads) connecting sense receptors with cavities in brain (ventricles) - Ventricles filled with animal spirits (actually filled with cerebrospinal fluid) - When threads were tightened by external events, the animal spirits flowed into nerves and to muscles causing them to react (a reflex) - Determined human and animal interactions with environment are reflexive - Used animal dissection to study humans; did a lot of dissection work - Many processes are mechanical (e.g., heart as a pump)

Answer 41

- Also concluded that unlike animals, only humans have a mind - Thought animals couldn’t feel pain; thought everything was like a machine - Mind provides consciousness, free will, and rationality - Mind was nonphysical - Influences body via pineal gland - Body was physical - Dualism/Interactionism - Nonphysical mind and physical body can influence each other - He felt this distinguished animals and automaton from humans - Paved way for scientific study of consciousness

Answer 42

- Stimulus-response and behavioral psychology come from his analysis of reflexive behavior (Pavlov) - Physiological and comparative psychology stem from his study of animals in relation to humans - Phenomenology was influenced by his use of introspection to find clear and distinct ideas

Answer 43

- British French, and German philosophers rejected Descartes’s claim that some ideas are innate - Shift to thinking that ideas come from experience - Resulted in: - Empiricism - Sensationalism - Positivism

Answer 44

-Belief that all knowledge is derived from experience, especially sensory experience

Answer 45

-Form of empiricism that limits experience as a source of knowledge

Answer 46

- The contention that science should study only that which can be directly experienced - Speculation about abstract entities should be avoided

Answer 47

-(British Empiricism) - In relation to Galileo: - Universe consists of matter and motion and both are understood with mechanical principles - Should be applicable to humans, who are also machines consisting of matter and motions - Forces acting on an object explain behavior - Inner states, essences, etc. do not explain behavior - In relation to Descartes: - Like Descartes, preferred deductive methods in the study of the sensory experience - Unlike Descartes, ideas come from sensory experiences - Government and human instincts: - Fear of death motivates humans to create social order - Humans are naturally aggressive, selfish, and greedy - Actually favored the idea of a monarchy - Civilization is created as a matter of survival - Without it, human behavior would be selfish and self-destructive (Leviathan: if we didn’t have constructs, civilization would be chaotic) - Contractarianism: ethics, morality, and social psychology (people just have unsaid agreement to behave; no contract to sign) -External forces are what explain your behavior

Answer 48

- Attention: when sensory organs are focused on something, they cannot respond to other things - sounds a lot like selective attention -Memory: faces over time, just like sensory impressions - Motivation (a hedonistic theory): - Appetite (seeking/maintaining pleasurable experiences) - Aversion (avoidance/termination of painful experiences) - Law of contiguity (Aristotle) - Connected this to “train of thought” (one thought follows another thought, follows another thought, etc.) - Coherent following of one thought after another - Things experiences together are experienced together - Sounds a lot like episodic memory - Will: action that prevails when a number of choices exist - Free will is an illusion; choice/will is a label used to describe attractions and aversions

Answer 49

-(British Empiricism) - Disagreed that ideas are innate (if they were innate, we’d all think the same things) - Ideas are: - Mental images employed when thinking - Come from sensation (sensory experience) or reflection (thinking about the sensory experience) - ”Once the ideas furnished by sensation are in the mind they can be actively transformed by the mental operations involved in reflection” - Simple (cannot be analyzed into further ideas) - Complex (composites of simple ideas; formed by reflection (e.g., comparing, abstracting, discriminating, combining, reasoning)) - Associations (associative learning) explain faulty beliefs, which are learned by chance, custom, or mistake (ties into Pavlov; ex: of faulty beliefs: child has a nanny and says something scary is in dark, so he associates darkness with scariness) - Emotions stem from ideas (pleasure and pain) - Primary and Secondary Qualities: - Distinction between what is physically present and what is psychologically experienced - Primary: actual attributes of an objects, events, etc. - Creates ideas of the physical attributes - Secondary: psychological experience - Creates ideas with no physical counterpart (e.g., taste, color)

Answer 50

- Insisted that nurture (experience) was more important than nature (innate ability); your environment (parents, teachers, etc.) are what make or break you - Argued tabula rasa - Impact of experience on learning and foundation of the self - Importance of parenting - Parents: - Increase the child’s stress tolerance (aka hardening) - Sleep on hard beds, moderate exposure to the elements (e.g., cold, wet) - Discourage crying with physical punishment - Provide sufficient sleep, food, fresh air, and exercise - Teachers: - ”If learning occurs under aversive conditions, it will be avoided both in school and beyond” - Sounds a lot like behavioral theory - Advocated for practical learning -- science, math, etc. rather Latin and Greek languages, etc. - Environment: - Advocated for mild physical punishment - Make the learning experience pleasant, provide praise for accomplishments - Methods: - Stepwise/sequential teaching of complex topics - Excessive, overly rigorous assignments should be avoided

Answer 51

- (British Empiricism) - Esse est percipi (to be is to be perceived) - We exist only in being perceived by another - Reality consists only of our perceptions; matter is an unknown - Locke vs. Berkeley

Answer 52

- Senses provide different information about an object - Through experience, we learn that those ideas are always associated with a specific object - Reminiscent of the Law of Contiguity - All sensations experienced together are associated together - Sensory experiences that go together define an object Theory of Distance Perception - Debate about perception and a blind individual who gains sight - Argued that many sensations must be associated to “see” - Prior, Descartes argued it was all related to the geometry of optics - At First Sight based upon the essay “To See and Not See” in An Anthropologist on Mars by Dr. Oliver Sacks - Subject: Shirl Jennings - Retinitis: Pigmentosa -- disease of the retina that causes blindness - Removal of dense cataracts restored some vision - But can he see?

Answer 53

- (British Empiricism) - Content of the mind comes from experience - Emotions (Passions) and behavior - Passions that are associated with ideas cause behavior - In other words, we are more influenced by our feelings than by reason - Our passions differ out level of passion differs, hence our reactions to situations differ from person to person - Understanding emotions is the key to a happy life - Modern connection: Emotional Intelligence (David Goleman) - The capacity for understanding our own feelings and the feelings of others, for motivating ourselves, and for managing our emotions effectively in relationships - Aka “People Smarts” - Includes: Self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and social skills

Answer 54

- (British Empiricism) - When ideas are continuously experienced together the association may become so strong that they appear as one idea - Strength of associations is determined by: - Vividness of the sensations or ideas - By the frequency of the associations

Answer 55

-(British Empiricism) - Argued for the development of a “science of the formation of character” - You can study thoughts, feelings, etc. -Psychology as a science

Answer 56

-(French Sensationalism) Julien do La Mettrie: - Man is a machine - Sensation and thoughts are movements of particles in the brain - Intelligence is influenced by - Brain size - Brain complexity - Education - Humans and animals differ only in degree of intelligence - Bigger brains - More complex brains - Better educated Claude Helvetius - If you control experience you can control the mind of the person - Social skills, moral behavior, genius, etc. can be taught by controlling experience - Can be linked to William Lutz: people in power can control the way we perceive the world; control language = control perception; manipulation

Answer 57

- Science, not religion, is the only valid knowledge - Science provides the only information one can believe - Also known as “Scientism” - All about science

Answer 58

- The only thing we can be sure of is that which is publicly observable - Sense experiences that can be perceived by others - Knowledge through empirical observation - Evolution of Scientific Thought via The Law of Three Stages: - Stage 1: Theological - Explanations based upon superstition and mysticism - Stage 2: Metaphysical - Explanations based on unseen essences, principles, etc. - Stage 3: Scientific - Explanations based upon description, prediction, and control over natural phenomena (scientific method) - Used as a means of comparison between societies - Utopian Society: Religion of Humanity - Humanity replaces God - Scientists and philosophers replace priests, etc.