Test 3 (Final) Flashcards
(112 cards)
1
Q
Gestalt Psychology: A New Perspective
A
-Revolt from then dominant empirical psychology (e.g., behaviorism, elementism)
-Focus on an application of field theory to
Psychology
-Physicists: How interacting elements combine to create an overall pattern or force
-Gestaltists: The brain is a configuration of forces that transform sensory information into something meaningful
- Major figures include Wertheimer, Koffka & Köhler, who ask a major question…
- How do separate, attended to stimuli become an experienced whole? When looking at its parts, how do you know what it is?
2
Q
Psychophysical Isomorphism & the Law of Pragnanz
A
- Law of Pragnanz
- The brain has a tendency to construct meaning that represents the simplest, most stable, and most regular and symmetrical understanding of the world
- In other words, we like to create simplicity and order in what we experience
- Your brain is about keeping things organized and simple, so it’s easily understood
- The brain transforms sensory information into a conscious/mental experience (Psychophysical Isomorphism)
- A pattern of energy from a sensory signal will generate a similar pattern of energy in the brain
- However, it won’t be a perfect one-to-one correspondence due to the Law of Pragnanz
- Textbook example of the actual topography of the United States and that depicted in a map
- Brain analyzes and organizes these activities from the top (whole) to the bottom (parts)
- The “whole” applies meaning to all those parts (in this chapter particularly with perception); brain drives meaning
3
Q
Gestalt Perception: Terminology
A
- Perceptual constancy
- The figure/ground relationship
- Principle of continuity
- Principle of proximity
- Principle of inclusiveness
- Principle of similarity
- Principle of closure
4
Q
Perceptual Constancy
A
-Familiar objects have a standard shape, size, color, etc.
- We still recognize the object despite changes in angle of perspective, distance, or lighting
- Ex: of door (no matter how far away it is, the way light is hitting it, its position/orientation, you still know what it is)
- Due to ongoing brain activity and NOT the result of sensation and learning (empiricists)
- Textbook gave example with brightness
- Ex with joystick toy-looking thing:
- Figures in “A” are all basically the same shape despite rotation
- Figures in “A” are distinguishable from those in figure “B”
- Figures in “C” and “D” are recognized from “A” despite perspective, elastic deformations, and differing graphic
-*You want your dentist, doctor, and surgeon to be really good at this
5
Q
Figure-Ground Relationship
A
- Visual: ability to see an object in a busy background
- Auditory: ability to pick out a voice or sound from a noisy environment
- Your ability to pick out what to focus on and ignore the rest
- Terminology:
- Figure = object of attention
- Ground = that which is not attended to
- Helps you:
- Find your favorite socks in a messy drawer
- FInd a specific book on a bookshelf
- Tell your mom’s voice from another woman’s voice
- Poor skills mean:
- Can’t find information on a busy blackboard
- Lose place while reading
- Difficulty finding personal items in a cluttered place
- Ex of finding ladybug in picture
- Ex of finding hidden face in image of tiger
6
Q
Principle of Continuity
A
- The mind continues the pattern even if some of it is interrupted
- Visual
- Auditory (ex: of playing scale, they stop, but you know how it would’ve ended)
- Kinesthetic (ex: of golf players – you don’t see them swing, but you can imagine the movement)
-Most people would say they see two crossed, wavy lines or that the lines continue behind the tree (above)
7
Q
Principle of Proximity
A
- When stimuli are close together, they tend to be grouped together
- If bad at it, may result in challenges with reading, writing, and mathematics (e.g., spatial errors)
8
Q
Principle of Inclusiveness
A
- When there is more than one figure, we see the figure that contains the greatest amount of stimuli
- We tend to see the larger figure, not the smaller ones
- This explains how camouflage works
- Looking at whole field, so ignore the smaller components that would differentiate it
9
Q
Principle of Similarity
A
- Similar objects will form perceptual units
- Ex: With similar spacing, do the letters seem more like four rows or four columns? (x’s and o’s)
- Features that look similar are seen as related
- Used to create repetitive patterns that are pleasing to the eye
- Ex: of The Beatles “A Hard Day’s Night” album cover
10
Q
Principle of Closure
A
- Incomplete figures are perceived as complete figures
- Ability to perceive the whole image when only part of it is available
- Impacts reading and math
- Reading: Can recognize words without having to decode them; improves reading speed
- Math: Can recognize quantities without counting; we can see a number of objects and know how many there are (ex: guessing how many gumballs in a jar throughout different images)
-Comics (and graphic novels) require you to fill in the gaps between frames (keep storyline in your head)
11
Q
Neuropsychology and Visual Visual Perceptual Skills
A
- Example tests:
- Test of visual perceptual skills – 4
- Developmental test of visual perception – 3
- Vision therapy (helps strengthen numbered areas)
- Eyecanlearn.com
- Visual discrimination (ability to find detail differences in images (Highlight subscription)
- Visual memory
- Visual figure-ground
- Visual-spatial relationships (closely related to visual form constancy (#6); rotated objects ex)
- Visual closure
- Visual form constancy
- Visual sequential memory
12
Q
Gestalt and Learning - Insight
A
-Evidence of problem solving
- Köhler’s interpretation
- Perceive the situation as a whole
- Understand the relationship between various stimuli
- Problem is presented with the things necessary for the solution
- This equates insight:
- Solutions require:
- Restructuring the perceptual field
- Perceiving a new relationship between the stimuli
- Transition from pre-solution to solution is sudden and complete
- Because the organism learns relationships, not responses (behaviorism) learning can be applied to similar situations
- Transposition = “transfer of training”
13
Q
Kurt Lewin and the Expansion of Gestalt Concepts - Overview
A
- Used the concept of fields to explain behavior in terms of social influence
- Extended the concepts beyond the aforementioned Gestalt framework
- Concept of the “Life Space”:
- Composed of objective and imagined; “life space” is the whole
- The psychological field of the individual
- Encompasses all influences acting upon one at a given time
- Encompasses psychological facts
- Objective
- Awareness of internal events (e.g., hunger, fatigue)
- Awareness of external events (i.e., anything in one’s environment)
- Recollections of prior experiences (e.g., knowing that your boss tends to be cranky)
- Imagined
- Can include subjective beliefs (e.g., being unpopular at work)
- All of these require awareness in the moment (focus on the present) - The combination of psychological facts determine behavior in a given situation
14
Q
Motivation
A
- Equilibrium/Cognitive balance
- State of balance between the person and the environment
- Any disturbance of this equilibrium produces tension
- Leads to an action to relieve the tension and restore balance - Motivation is a consequence of disequilibrium
- The Zeigarnik Effect
- Tendency to recall uncompleted tasks more easily than completed ones
- Related to the tension caused by leaving a task incomplete
- Becomes part of the life space - What psychological conditions could result from the Zeigarnik Effect?
- Anxiety, which could lead to depression
15
Q
Conflict, Choice, and Stress: Approach-Approach Conflict
A
- Must choose between two or more desirable goals
- Least stressful situation
- Ex: ”Should I vacation in Bora Bora, Tahiti, or Bali, Indonesia?
16
Q
Conflict, Choice, and Stress: Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict
A
- Faced with two goals, both of which are repellent
- Stressful situation
- Idiom: Being between a rock and a hard place
- Ex: “I hate my job, but I can’t quit and lose my income”
17
Q
Conflict, Choice, and Stress: Approach-Avoidance Conflict
A
- Mixed feelings about one goal (attracted and repelled)
- Most stressful situation
- Ex: ”I really want to eat this entire box of chocolates, but I know it will give me horrible acid reflux.”
18
Q
Social Psychology
A
- Research on Group Dynamics
- Behavior in group settings
- The nature of a group will influence the behavior of its members
- Influenced development of encounter groups and sensitivity training (like mob mentality)
- *group = whole; members = parts
- Research on Leadership Styles in Group Settings
- Authoritarian Group (one leader makes decisions for all)
- Yields highly aggressive group members
- Democratic (leader encourages discussion and participation in decision making)
- Yields more productive and friendly group members
- Laissez-Faire (no leadership; no group decisions)
- Yields unproductive group
- Authoritarian Group (one leader makes decisions for all)
19
Q
A Different Perspective: Gestalt Therapy
A
-Embraces Holism: Interest in the whole person (i.e., thoughts, feelings, behaviors, body, memories, dreams)
- Therapeutic goals include
- Awareness (how past behaviors interfere with living in the present)
- Quality contact between the individual and the environment
- Look at patient as a “whole”
- Similar terminology, different meanings
- Field theory: Individuals must be understood in the context of their environment
- Figure: Client’s experiences that are most salient in the moment
- Ground: Aspects of experience out of client’s awareness
- Known theorists: Fritz Perls, Miriam Polster
- The “now” is what’s important
- Took Gestalt Principles and put it into different/bigger ideas
20
Q
Early Considerations of Mental Illness - Terminology
A
- Past:
- Mad
- Lunatic
- Maniac
- Insane
- Present:
- Psychopathy (mental term for “mental illness”)
- Psychopathology (study of mental illness)
- Abnormal Behavior
-Focus is on behavior and cognitive processes as they impact one’s ability to function in social, occupational, and educational settings
21
Q
Common Themes
A
- Harmful Behavior
- To self and others (risk of harm to self and others)
- Examples: Self-harm, suicide, homicide
- Some cultures define such behaviors as appropriate depending upon the circumstances (e.g., honor killings)
- Harmful Behavior
- Unrealistic Thoughts and Perceptions
- Beliefs and perceptions that differ markedly from the norm
- Represent a break from reality (reality testing is not intact)
- Example: Delusions (beliefs) and hallucinations (perceptions)
- Delusion: false belief system (ex: someone thinking their Christ reincarnate; everybody is out to get them; stalkers)
- Hallucinations: seeing things, hearing things that aren’t there; not always frightening have perceptions that aren’t real (schizophrenics, but they also experience delusions)
- Unrealistic Thoughts and Perceptions
- Inappropriate Emotions
- Emotional displays that are incongruent with the circumstance in which they are presented
- Example: Extreme elation during a manic phase; laughing at a funeral
- Inappropriate Emotions
- Unpredictable Behavior
- Sudden shifts in beliefs and emotions
- Example: mood swings related to Bipolar Disorder; impulsive reactions due to a paranoid mindset; people with borderline personality disorder)
- Unpredictable Behavior
-Important Note: The behaviors/emotions must always be considered in the context in which they occur and the cultural history must always be incorporated into the conceptualization of psychopathy
22
Q
Current Definition: The 4Ds
A
- Deviance:
- From social norms and societal values
- Specific circumstances or context (want to look at what society considers “normal”)
- Deviance:
- Distress:
- Behavior, ideas, or emotions
- Has to cause distress before being labeled abnormal
- Distress:
- Dysfunction:
- Abnormal behavior tends to interfere with daily functioning
- Dysfunction:
- Danger:
- Dangerous to oneself or others
- Typically the exception rather than the rule
- Danger:
23
Q
Early Explanations of Mental Illness: Biological Explanations
A
- “Medical Model”
- All disease is caused by a body-based malfunction
- Examples: congenital defect, injury, illness, genetics, physiological imbalance, toxins
Some psychological disorders are best understood with this model (e.g., schizophrenia)
24
Q
Early Explanations of Mental Illness: Psychological Explanations
A
- “Psychological Model”
- Psychological events are the cause of abnormal behavior
- Examples: grief, anxiety, fear, disappointment, guilt, conflict
25
Early Explanations of Mental Illness: Special Note
- Biological and psychological explanations of mental illness often exist simultaneously; in reality, they work together
- Example: There are biological and psychological explanations for why someone may experience anxiety or depression
- Example: Diathesis-stress model
- Interaction of a pre-disposed vulnerability and an environmental (life experience) stress
- Explains why an individual with a genetic predisposition for a specific condition (e.g., substance abuse) may not experience it due to life in a healthy environment (genetic predisposition towards something, but whether it shows up or not depends on environment)
26
Early Explanations of Mental Illness: Supernatural Explanations
- Popular during the Middle Ages
- Mental and physical disorders are inflicted on people by mysterious forces (e.g., immortal beings)
- Example: seizure disorders, demonic possession, and exorcism
27
Supernatural Approaches
-Coax out invading (evil) forces
- Ritual approach
- Appeals and bribery
- Exorcism
- Incantations
- Other techniques to let out invading forces
- Bleedings
- Trepanation (removing a portion of the skull)
28
Early Biological Approaches
- Hippocrates and Galen (tried to be more practical)
- Ailments were a function of the body
- Natural remedies prescribed
- Fresh air
- Baths
- Special diets
- Rest
- Soon followed by a return to the supernatural with religious overtones
- Abnormal behavior = sinfulness and witchcraft
- Start of witch hunts and inquisitions
- Continued through the Renaissance
29
Early Psychological Approaches
-18th Century
- Belief in natural law
- You get what you deserve
- Mental illness was a punishment for a sinful life
- Alleviate suffering by changing one’s ways (start of thinking that one needs to change behavior)
- Start of psychotherapy
- Therapist’s role:
- Help with behavior change
- Various techniques
- Reenacting trauma
- Dream analysis
30
What is Psychotherapy?
- Book definition: An attempt to help a person with mental illness
- Technical definition: A series of techniques from various theoretical orientations designed to ameliorate the symptoms of psychopathy
- Involves the client/patient, the care provider (helper) and a systematic process (ritual)
- Reasons people seek services:
- Removing, modifying or controlling distressing psychological states
- Changing undesirable behavior patterns
- Promoting positive personal growth and greater meaning in one’s life
31
Philippe Pinel
-Late 18th Century
- Argued for humane treatment of the mentally ill
- Chained, put in spinning baskets, doused with cold water, blood lettings, harsh treatment, exorcisms
- Replaced with more humane treatments
- Bathing, mild purgatives (laxatives)
- Separated patients by severity of their behavior
- Inspired others conditions improved
32
Benjamin Rush and Dorothea Lynde Dix
- Benjamin Rush:
- Mental Inquiries and Observations upon the Diseases of the Mind
- Encouraged more humane treatment
- Fresh air, sunlight, walks
- Treat with dignity, not for amusement
- Dorothea Lynde Dix:
- Noticed that many incarcerated women were struggling with mental illness
- Toured cross-country (18 states)
- Also worked in Europe
- Brought about institutional reform
33
Emil Kraepelin
- First to systematically study the effects of drugs on various cognitive and behavioral functions
- Father of Psychopharmacology
- Arguably one of his most important contributions…
- Wanted to classify mental illnesses
- Published first thorough list of mental disorders
- Inspiration for the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)
34
History of the DSM
- DSM-I (1952)
- DSM-II (1968)
- DSM-III (1980)
- DSM-III-R (1987)
- DSM-IV (1994)
- DSM-IV-TR (2000)
- DSM-5 (2013)
- Corresponds to the ICD
35
Lightner Witmer
- Founded the first psychological clinic
- Founded the journal Psychological Clinic
- Coined the term “clinical psychology”
- Founded residential schools for troubled youth
- Lasting contributions
- Principles of experimental/scientific psychology can be used to help troubled individuals
- This help can be provided through a special profession (clinical psychology) that is independent of both medicine and education
- A commitment that clinical psychology should be highly research oriented and be closely allied with basic psychology
- Inspiration for the Boulder Conference (1949)
- Scientist-practitioner model (if practicing, you should be researching, or at least know about the research that has happened/is happening)
- Clinicians hold a Ph. D.
- We will visit this in more detail later (chapter 20)
36
Medical vs. Psychological Model
-Thomas Szasz: The Myth of Mental Illness (1974)
- Argued:
- Unless an illness is neurophysiological, it isn’t an illness
- Mental illness reflects social, political, or moral judgment (problems of living and conformity)
- Mental illness is a mislabel
- Labeling absolves responsibility for solving one’s problems
- Justifies the “sick role”
-Still debated today
37
Franz Anton Mesmer
- *Hypnotism
- Human body contained a magnetic force field; can manipulate force field to influence mental health
- Used magnets to treat patients with unevenly distributed force fields
- Patients knew what was expected to occur
- The power of suggestion?
- Eventually used his own hands to heal
- Mesmer felt he was strong with the force (to quote Yoda)
- Left Vienna for dubious curative claims, but gained popularity in Paris (popular on purpose)
- Treated groups of patients with his magnetic force
- Phenomena of the contagion effect
- Patients who would not respond to suggestion when alone with a physician, readily do so after seeing others response
-Eventually discredited, but mesmerism did not fade away – became popular in the United States
38
Marquis De Puysegur
-*Hypnotism
- Developed artificial somnambulism
- Trance-like state under which an individual responds to commands
- Observed phenomena commonly associated with hypnosis today
- Highly suggestable
- Paralysis of various sensations (ex: right arm is paralyzed)
- Posthypnotic amnesia (don’t remember what happened when they wake up)
- Posthypnotic suggestions (ex: bark like dog)
- Will engage in an action that was suggested while under hypnosis
- Example: Hypnosis to quit smoking (feel sick in stomach)
- Example: Hypnosis for weight loss
- Studies are mixed on the efficacy of this as a treatment option
39
Jean-Martin Charcot
-*Hypnotism
- That being hypnotizable meant one was suffering from mental pathology (hysteria)
- The Nancy School – hypnotizability was normal for everyone
- Eventually saw his perspective was wrong
- Hypnotism as a form of treatment of the effects of trauma
- Trauma causes dissociation of ideas from conscious awareness
- They become strong enough to cause hysterical symptoms
-This leads us to the idea of repressed memories, which will be covered in Chapter 16: Psychoanalysis (Freud studied with Charot)
40
First School
-*Hypnotism
- The Nancy (naw-see) School
- Founded by Ambroise Auguste Liébeault
- Grew out of his work with hypnosis in his medical practice
- Others came to train with him
- Currently, no formal school for or degree in hypnosis, but certification programs exist
- Certification Requirements
- Licensed professionals in health care, mental health care, and pastoral counseling; graduate level degree
- Courses and supervised clinical hours
41
Current Programs and Organization
-*Hypnotism
- National Board for Certified Clinical Hypnotherapists
- National Board Certified Clinical Hypnotherapist
- Other Certification Programs and Organizations
- American College of Hypnotherapy
- American Society of Clinical Hypnosis
- Society for Clinical Experimental Hypnosis
- American Council of Hypnotist Examiners
- International Hypnosis Federation
42
Sigmund Freud - Important Considerations
- Importance of historical context
- Zeitgeist of his time
- Zeitgeist: The defining spirit/mood of a particular historical period as shown by that era’s beliefs and ideas
- Influence on his theoretical concepts
- Importance of family context
- Freud’s relationship with his parents (his mom put all her time and energy; interesting family network); relationship with parents influence his theoretical concepts)
- Influence on his theoretical concepts
- Importance of his choices
- Freud was an MD with a known addiction to nicotine
- Experimentation with cocaine
- Led to the death of a colleague (tried to use cocaine to treat a morphine addiction)
- Compromised his reputation
43
Freud, Breuer, & Anna O.
- Freud & Breuer – friends and colleagues
- Freud was influenced by Breuer’s work with Anna O.
- Anna O.:
- Symptoms of hysteria (e.g., temporary paralysis, memory loss, mental disorientation); high anxiety
- Used hypnosis to trace her symptoms to an earlier trauma (e.g., death of her father)
- Awareness eased symptoms – Cathartic Method
- She called it the “talking cure”
- Transference experienced by Anna O.
- Transference: you start to act towards therapist as though they’re the source of issue (ex: You’re just like my mother.” and they lash out)
- Countertransference experienced by Breuer
- Countertransference: therapist reacts (ex: “How could you say that? How dare you!”)
44
Hypnosis and Psychoanalysis (Freud)
- Hypnosis (not his cup of tea):
- Influenced by Charcot and the Nancy School
- Found use of hypnosis to be inconsistent (results were hit or miss)
- Developed technique of free association (let patient just talk)
- Used in response to resistance (Def: when the patient stops short of realizing a traumatic event); when they start getting uncomfortable, getting too close to the issue
- Needed to retrieve information from the unconscious
- Psychoanalysis:
- Assemble the fragmented material of the unconscious; therapy technique to get things out of unconscious
- Symptoms are a symbolic representation of unconscious conflicts
- Repressed experiences or conflicts that do not go away
- Work with patients with hysteria
- Led to “The Seduction Theory” – hysteria symptoms rooted in a previous sexual attack
- Later evidence caused him to abandon the idea
45
Dream Work (Freud)
- The Royal Road to the Unconscious”:
- Hysterical symptoms and dreams are symbolic manifestations of repressed traumatic thoughts
- Manifest vs. latent content
- Manifest: What it appears to be on the surface
- Latent: What it is really about (the underlying themes)
- Examples: Dreams about flight
- Dreams as wish fulfillment:
- Dreams allow expression of desires without the anxiety
- Symbolism serves as a disguise; symbolism is protective layer (allows you to think about it, but not directly)
46
Parapraxes (Freud)
- There are no “accidents”; everything is on purpose
- Forgetting an appointment
- Losing something
- Mistakes in writing
- Freudian slips
- Principal Skinner Example
-All done unconsciously
47
Topography of the Mind (Freud)
- The mind is like an iceberg. It is mostly hidden and below the surface lies the unconscious mind. The preconscious stores temporary memories.
- Ego (executive mediator) - top of iceberg
- Superego (internalized details) - middle of iceberg
- Id (unconscious psychic energy) - bottom of iceberg
Typography:
- Conscious mind - at top (what you’re currently aware of; ex: in class, learning)
- Preconscious - in middle (outside awareness but accessible; holding place for memories that can be brought out)
- Unconscious mind - at bottom (not aware)
48
Structural Model
-Freud
- Id:
- Operates on the pleasure principle
- Unconsciously strives to satisfy basic drives to survive, reproduce, and aggress
- Collective “Id Energy” = Libido
- Runs amuck; doesn’t care; hedonistic; impulsive; death
- Ex: of devil on Homer’s shoulder
- Ego:
- Operates on a reality principle
- Seeks to realistically gratify id’s impulses
- Contains perceptions, thoughts, judgments and memories
- Anxiety: When Ego feels overwhelmed by the Id
- Tries to temer id and superego
- Superego:
- Focuses on ideal behavior
- Strives for perfections
- Acts as a moral conscious
- Can be overly punishing
- Ex: of angel on Homer’s shoulder
49
Ego Defense Mechanisms (Freud)
- 1. Regression
- 2. Reaction Formation
- 3. Projection
- 4. Rationalization
- 5. Displacement
- 6. Denial
- None of these are helpful; all create barrier
50
Regression
- Retreating to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated
- Ex: a little boy reverts to the oral comfort of thumb sucking in the car on the way to his first day of school
51
Reaction Formation
- Switching unacceptable impulses into their opposites
| - Ex: Repressing angry feelings, a person displays exaggerated friendliness
52
Projection
- Disguising one’s own threatening impulses by attributing them to others
- Ex: “The thief thinks everyone else is a thief” (an El Salvadoran saying)
53
Rationalization
- Offering self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening unconscious reasons for one’s actions
- Ex: A habitual drinker says she drinks with her friends “just to be sociable.”
54
Displacement
- Shifting sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person
- A little girl kicks the family dog after her mother sends her to her room
- Also called sublimation (channeling your feelings onto something else)
- Ex: of Homer Simpson
55
Denial
- Refusing to believe or even perceive painful realities
| - Ex: A partner denies evidence of his loved one’s affair
56
Personality Development (Freud)
-During these stages, the id’s pleasure-seeking energies focus on pleasure sensitive body areas called erogenous zones
- Freud’s Psycosexual Stages:
- 1. Oral (0-18 months)
- Pleasure centers on the mouth - sucking, biting, chewing, smoking
- 2. Anal (18-36 months)
- Pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination; coping with demands for control
- 3. Phallic (3-6 years)
- Pleasure zone is the genitals; coping with incestuous sexual feelings; oedipal complex
- 4. Latency (6 to puberty)
- Dormant sexual feelings
- 5. Genital (puberty on)
- Maturation of sexual interests
-Phallic stage and oedipal complex - the male child castration anxiety; the female child and penis envy
57
Fixation and Personality Development (Freud)
-Strong conflict can fixate an individual at earlier stages
- Oral fixation
- Oral receptive personality – reduces stress through eating, drinking, smoking, biting nails
- Oral aggressive personality – hostile and verbally abusive to others (sarcastic, rude, abusive)
- Anal fixation
- Anal retentive personality – stingy, stubborn, perfectionistic; compulsive about order and tidiness
- Anal expulsive personality – lack of self-control; messy and careless; generous
-*Fixation = hurdles
58
Neo-Freudians
- Agreed with Freud about childhood importance
- Believed social, not sexual, tensions were important in personality formation
- Notable figures include
- Erik Erikson (Psychosocial Stages of Development - conflict at different points in life)
- Carl Jung
- Alfred Adler
- Karen Horney
59
Carl Jung - The Personal and Collective Unconscious and Archetypes
- Conscious and Unconscious:
- Ego is the conscious mind
- Personal Unconscious
- Your experiences – repressed and forgotten
- Material from your lifetime
- Collective Unconscious
- aka: Archetypes
- Definition: Models of people, behaviors, and personalities
- Innate, universal, and hereditary
- 4 Basic Archetypes:
- The Self: Unification of unconscious and conscious
- The Shadow: Repressed ideas, weakness, desires, shortcomings; part of unconscious mind; darker side
- The Anima/Animus
- Anima: Female counterpart to male personality; how males can interact with females
- Animus: Male counterpart to the female personality; how females can interact with males
- How we interact with opposite sex
- The Persona: How we present ourselves to the world; the “mask”
- Different depending on who you’re with
- Archetypes influence our emotions and how we relate to the world
60
Alfred Adler
- Complexes:
- Inferiority
- Can be a motivating factor: Positive growth
- Can be a disabling force: Can lead to sense of inadequacy
- Inferiority Complex
- Superiority
- Can result from feelings of inferiority
- Person overcompensates and places too much emphasis on striving for perfection
- Superiority Complex
- Birth Order:
- First = leader, achiever, organized, responsible, adult-pleaser, rule follower, etc.
- Middle = flexible, easy-going, social, peacemaker, independent, strong negotiator, generous, etc.
- Last = risk-taker, outgoing, creative, competitive, enjoys being pampered, sense of humor, etc.
- Only = close to parents, leader, mature, dependable, demanding, private, sensitive, etc.
61
Karen Horney
- Stressed the importance of the parent-child relationship
- Social interactions, not intrapsychic conflicts, are the causes mental illness; interaction matters (especially parent-child interaction)
- Basic hostility & basic anxiety
- Hostility: Experienced toward parents; becomes a worldview
- Anxiety: Repression of the hostility
- Coping with anxiety
- Moving toward people
- To seek help and acceptance
- Compliant type
- Moving against people
- To force your power onto others in hopes of feeling good about yourself
- Hostile type
- Push people away
- Ex: reject them before they reject you
- Moving away from people
- To distance oneself from others to keep from being hurt
- Detached type
- Health people adjust these patterns as needed; neurotic people get stuck in one
62
Humanistic (Third-Force) Psychology. Why third force?
- By mid-20th century, structuralism, functionalism, and Gestalt psychology’s popularity waned
- Only psychoanalysis (1st force) and behaviorism (2nd force) remained influential
- By 1960’s
- Maslow and others felt those two viewpoints were limited – focus on mind and body only
- Wanted to include the human spirit (3rd force)
- Gave rise to:
- Existential Psychology
- Humanistic Psychology
63
Existential Psychology: Martin Heidegger
- Humans are always becoming something other than what they were
- To “be” means to “exist;” To “exist” is to “change”
- The Authentic Life (living an authentic life):
- Exercise your freedom to create a meaningful existence because life is short (death is inevitable; accept death, live your life, take responsibility)
- Living life with excitement and a sense of urgency
- Allows for personal growth (becoming)
- Freedom means taking responsibility for one’s life
- Must act within the circumstances of our lives – thrownness
- Your inherent looks, your socioeconomic status, your ethnicity, etc.
- Refusing to accept this fact may lead to living an inauthentic life
- Gives up personal freedom and lives a life dictated by others
- One becomes stagnant
- Results in guilt and anxiety
-Ideal: move people forward to live authentic life
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Existential Psychology: Rollo May
- The human dilemma:
- Humans are objects and subjects of experience (dual aspect of human nature)
- Objects – we exist
- Subjects – we interpret, value, and make choices regarding our experiences
- Within this dilemma (objects and subjects), we’re trying to be free
- Freedom brings responsibility and anxiety
- Normal anxiety is conducive to personal growth (stress that’s good for you; ex: stressed about planning trip, but it’s motivating)
- Healthy person exercises freedom to approach one’s full potential
- Exercising free will may leads to normal anxiety
- Neurotic anxiety is not conducive to personal growth (try to take people from this to normal anxiety)
- Person conforms to tradition, dogma, etc. and reduces the need to make personal choices (self-alienation)
- Giving up free will leads to existential guilt
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Myths - Rollo May
- A way to make sense of the world
- Narrative patterns that give significance to our existence
- Four functions (events in life are myths and that gives you the 4 functions):
- Provide a sense of identity
- Provide a sense of community*
- Support our moral values
- Provide a means of dealing with the mysteries of creation
- *Most important according to May
- Not all myths are healthy
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Existential Therapy
- Main goals of Existential Therapy
- To explore why the client is not living an authentic life
- Make choices that lead to reaching one’s full potential
- Create new meaning
- Help clients take responsibility in their lives
- Client blames others for their predicament
- Therapist asks how he/she contributed to the predicament
- Narrative Therapy
- Explores the client’s myths
- Understanding and evaluating the effectiveness of one’s stories
-Existential therapy is more a mindset than specific techniques
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Humanistic Psychology: Basic Tenets
- 1. Little of value can be learned about humans by studying nonhuman animals
- 2. Subjective reality is the primary guide for human behavior
- 3. Studying individuals is more informative than studying what groups of individuals have in common
- 4. *A major effort should be made to discover those things that expand and enrich human experience
- 5. Research should seek information that will help solve human problems
- 6. The goal of psychology should be to formulate a complete description of what it means to be a human being
- Trying to look at you as a whole and help you reach your potential
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Abraham Maslow: Hierarchy of Needs
- 1. Self-transcendence needs
- Need to find meaning and identity beyond the self
- 2. Self-actualization needs
- Need to live up to our fullest and unique potential
- 3. Esteem needs
- Needs for self-esteem, achievement, competence, and independence; need for recognition and respect from others; people recognize your efforts
- 4. Belongingness and love needs
- Need to love and be loved, to belong and be accepted; need to avoid loneliness and separation; need to be loved AND to love
- 5. Safety needs
- Need to feel that the world is organized and predictable; need to feel safe, secure, and stable
- 6. Physiological needs
- Need to satisfy hunger and thirst
- Self-Actualization:
- Reaching one’s full, human potential
- Characteristics:
- Perceive reality accurately and fully
- Demonstrate great acceptance of self and others
- Need for privacy
- Have a few friends
- Tend to be creative, etc.
- Criticisms:
- Can meet higher needs even if lower ones are not completely fulfilled
- Hierarchy varies across cultures
- Behavior is not motivated by a single need on the hierarchy; behavior is motivated by a myriad of needs
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Carl Rogers: Theory of Personality
- Organismic Valuing Process
- Our tendency toward self-actualization
- Innate
- We select goals based on our inner nature and purpose
- Process can include:
- Authenticity – being yourself
- Autonomy – avoiding “shoulds” and making your own decisions
- Internal locus of evaluation – judgment based on one’s own views rather than seeking approval from others
- Unconditional positive self-regard – judging yourself as valuable and worthwhile
- Process living – recognizing life is a constant state of becoming; always evolving
- Relatedness – seeking close and deep personal relationships
- Openness to inner and outer experience – being able to perceive and accept how others and oneself behaves and feels
- Conditions of Worth (How are you valuing yourself?)
- Conditional positive regard
- Stunts organismic valuing process
- Ex: I’ll be your friend if you let me drive your car
- Unconditional positive regard
- Allows one to become a fully functioning person
- Valued for who you are
- Ex: I’ll love you no matter what
-Congruence and Incongruence
- Real Self vs. Ideal Self
- Ideal Self: May be set up by others (in conditional, positive regard)
- Empathic Understanding and Personal Growth
- Cornerstone of health relationships
- Empathy: I understand your situation and relate it back to them; explain to them how you understand
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Carl Rogers: Person-Centered Psychology/Therapy
Treatment Goals:
- Help clients achieve greater independence and integration
- Help clients achieve-self-acceptance
- Help clients achieve authentic ways of being
- Treatment Approach:
- Therapists must be genuine, present, accepting, congruent, and empathetic
- More a philosophy than a set of techniques
- The therapeutic relationship is the intervention
- *”It is the client who knows what hurts, what direction to go, what problems are crucial, what experiences have been deeply buried.” -- On Becoming a Person
- More of a cooperation
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Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi: Positive Psychology
-The scientific study of human strengths and virtues
- What constitutes
- A pleasant life
- An engaged life
- A meaningful life
- Focus on character strengths, optimism, happiness, well-being, compassion, self-esteem, hope, self-confidence, etc.
- We need to talk about the good
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Psychobiology - Main Focus
-Psychobiological research
- Biological bases of behavior
- Central nervous system
- Brain structures
- Neurons
- Neurotransmitters
-Beginnings of neuroscience
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Neurons
- Cell body: cell’s life-support center
- Dendrites: receive messages from other cells
- Axon: passes messages away from cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands
- Terminal branches of axon: form junctions with other cells
- Myelin Sheath: covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses
- Neural impulses: (action potential) electrical signal traveling down the axon
- Cytoplasm is the fluid that fills the neurons (and all cells)
- Neurons in CNS (brain and spinal cord)
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Glial Cells
- Provide nutritional support
- Removes waste (e.g., ions, neurotransmitters)
- Construct myelin
- Like the glue of the brain
- Provide structure
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Neurotransmitters
-Chemical messengers that travel from cell body to the terminal branches
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Example Neurotransmitters
- Acetylcholine (ACh): enables muscle action, learning, and memory; with alzheimer’s disease; ACh-producing neurons deteriorate
- Dopamine: influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion; oversupply linked to schizophrenia; undersupply linked to tremors and loss of motor control in Parkinson’s disease
- Serotonin: affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal; undersupply linked to depression; some drugs that raise serotonin levels are used to treat depression
- Norepinephrine: helps control alertness and arousal; undersupply can depress mood
- GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid): a major inhibitory neurotransmitter; undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia
- Glutamate: a major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory; oversupply can overstimulate the brain, producing migraines or seizures (which is why some people avoid MSG, monosodium glutamate, in food)
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Karl Lashley - Important Contributions
- Failed Search for the Engram
- Group of neurons that serve as the “physical representation of memory”
- Lesioned rat brains to erase the engram, but they were still able to successfully run the maze
- No evidence of the engram, but his studies led to the concepts of...
- Mass Action
- Loss of ability related to amount of destruction rather than the location of destruction
- Cortex appeared to work as a unified whole (Gestalt)
- Quantity is what is important; amount vs. location that equates to how important it might be
- Equipotentiality
- To remove a function, the entire area of brain responsibility for that function must be destroyed
- Any remaining parts will still allow the function to occur; any remaining parts will be able to function
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Donald Hebb - Cell Assemblies and Phase Sequences
- Every environmental object we experience fires a complex package of neurons
- Neurons that fire together, wire together, and survive together
- Neural interconnections develop with experience
- Reverberating neural activity allows neurons to become associated
- Pathways
- When a cell assembly fires, experience the thought of that environmental object
- Cell assemblies become neurologically integrated to form phase sequences
- Phase sequences = several connected cell assemblies; phase sequence putting together cell assemblies
- Results in a stream of thought
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Donald Hebb - Learning and More
- Learning:
- Childhood
- Slow buildup of cell assemblies and phase sequences
- They accumulate over time
- Adulthood
- The rearranging of existing cell assemblies and phase sequences
- Characterized by creativity and insight
- Other Findings:
- Animals reared in enriched sensory environments are better learners as adults
- Arousal theory (activity in the reticular activating system as related to cognitive and behavioral performance)
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Roger Sperry - Split-Brain
- Original Work with Animals
- Ablation of the corpus callosum and optic chiasm
- No information exchange between hemispheres
- Further understanding the two hemispheres are specialized
- In Humans for Medical Reasons
- Work of Roger Sperry & Michael Gazzaniga
- Severing of the corpus callosum
- Used to cease propagation of a seizure from one hemisphere to the other
- Lead to better understanding of hemispheric specialization
- Cautionary note regarding brain plasticity
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General Overview: Brain Lateralization
- Left:
- Analytical thought
- Detail oriented perception
- Ordered sequencing
- Rational thought
- Verbal
- Cautious
- Planning
- Math science
- Logic
- Right field vision
- Right side motor skills
- Right:
- Intuitive thought
- Holistic perception
- Random sequencing
- Emotional thought
- Non-verbal
- Adventurous
- Impulse
- Creative writing/Art
- Imagination
- Left field vision
- Left side motor skills
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Corpus Callosum
- Band of fibers (association cortices) that connect the two hemispheres
- Hemispheres are contralateral
- Controls opposite side of body
- Aware of the visual field on the opposite side
-Without it, the two hemispheres cannot communicate
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Split-Brain Patients
-The LH is the one that does verbal language, and that hemisphere is processing the right visual field. All it can verbally report is “ART”
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Cognitive Psychology - Defined
- The study of the mind as an information processor; how brain processes information
- Includes such mental processes as attention, language, memory, perception, problem solving, creativity, and thinking
- Human Experimental Psychology:
- Memory, attention, problem-solving, language
- Computer Analogies, Information Processing Approach:
- Artificial intelligence
- Computer simulation
- Cognitive Neuroscience:
- Brain damage and effect on cognition
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Jean Piaget (Cognitive Psych)
- Studied errors in cognition made by children in order to understand in what ways they think differently than adults
- As cognitive structures mature via experience, interactions with the environment become more complex and adaptive
- Stressed the importance of play and cognitive development
- “Play is the work of childhood”
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Schemas/Schemata
- A basic mental structure into which information one receives from the environment is organized
- Earlier schemas set the stage for constructing new and more sophisticated schema
- Never stop changing and are constantly refined through a process of adaptation
- Schemas can take the form of images, models, and/or concepts
- Never-ending process
- Schema has to adjust when you’re learning new things
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Assimilation/Accommodation
-Schema (boy has learned schema of cat) → Assimilation (boy saw a cub and called it “cat.” Sister said, “No, it’s a cub.”) → Accommodation (he saw accommodates new schema of cub)
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Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
- 1. Sensorimotor (birth – 2 years)
- Children experience the world through senses and actions; big leap
- 2. Preoperational (2 years to 6-7 years)
- Children represent things with words and images, but lack logical thinking
- 3. Concrete Operational (7 years to 11 years)
- Children can think logically about concrete events and can perform arithmetic operations, but have problems with abstract thought; can’t think hypothetically yet
- 4. Formal Operational (12 years though adulthood)
- Individuals can logically explore both concrete and abstract concepts. They can systematically think about all possibilities, project into the future or recall the past, and reason by analogy and metaphor; can think hypothetically
-Following slides will highlight the features of each stage
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Sensorimotor Stage
- Learn through sensory and motor experiences
- Major Milestone (big leap): Object Permanence
- Object Permanence Failure
- Family Guy Example
- Perseveration Error: learn they can look for things, but if you change it, they think it’s gone again, which is object permanence in progress
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Preoperational Stage Features
- Ability to think in symbols
- Importance to reading and numerical skills
- Non-logical, magical thinking
- Pretend Play
- Animism (put human concepts onto inanimate objects
- Language Development
- Lack Conservation
- Centration/Egocentrism (Tendency to focus on one aspect of a problem; have trouble seeing other perspectives; ex: “Is Brian your brother?” “Yes.” “Does Brian have a brother?” “No.” But he does)
- Static Reasoning (Thinks nothing changes)
- Focus on Appearance (Physical appearance is also its essence)
- Irreversibility (Nothing can be restored to the way it was before a change occurred)
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Preoperational: Theory of Mind
- Tempers egocentricity
- The ability to understand that others have their own thoughts and perspectives; realize other people have other thoughts/perspectives
- Perspective taking
- Have empathy if someone is hurt
- Learn they can lie
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Concrete Operational
- Logical thinking, but concrete in nature
- “You made your bed, now go lie in it.”
- Major milestone: Conservation
- Understanding that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects
- The ability to reverse (reversibility) one’s thinking, so to speak
- Mathematical transformations
-Don’t understand hypothetical, abstract thinking
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Formal Operational Stage
-Move from a concrete to an abstract thinker
- New abilities
- Hypothetical thinking
- Abstract thinking
- Understanding metaphors
- Problem solving and decision making
- Anticipating consequences
- Metacognition
- Similar to Norbert Wiener’s concept of Cybernetics (Maintenance of balance via feedback systems (e.g., thermostat))
- Ability to think about your thought process
- Potential for more mature moral reasoning
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Noam Chomsky - Language and Information
- Biological model of language development
- Language acquisition is “wired” into the species (inborn); species pre-wired to learn language
- Language Acquisition Device
- Biological device with a critical period
- Used to explain a child’s ability to quickly and efficiently learn the rules of grammar
- Children not exposed to language (spoken or signed) by about age 7 gradually lose their ability to master any language
- Other biological evidence
- Wernicke's and Broca’s areas
- Children universally follow the same sequence in language development
- Criticism
- Doesn’t explain how we keep up with the fast-changing nature of language
- 2018 Additions to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary – “If beer is more your thing, you might be a hophead heading to a brewery to taste a flight. Blended words, sometimes called portmanteau words, are also in the new list: a dish of zoodles and a mocktail might improve your mood if you’re hangry.”
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Contrasting Language Development Theories
- Operant Model (Skinner):
- “Infants need to be taught”
- Involves such leaning principles as association, imitation, and reinforcement
- Children respond to the reinforcement they get for making speech sounds
- Language is acquired through imitation of adult speech
- Children only learn the language spoken around them
- Criticism
- Doesn’t explain why children make grammar errors e.g., goed vs. went
- Learn language because rewarded for using it
- Social Pragmatic Model:
- ”Social impulses foster infant language”
- Infants communicate because humans have evolved as social beings; social connections
- The emotional messages of speech, not the words, are the focus of early communication
- The social context of speech is universal, which is why babies learn whatever specifics their culture provides
- Evolution of message matters
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Which Language Theory is correct?
- All theories/models offer insight into language acquisition
- A combination of these theories is what’s recognized
- Hybrid Theory of Language Learning
- Also known as “The Interactionist Approach”
- Language learning is biological and social (which includes learning principles)
-In summary: Language is a complex construct and early exposure in a caring/nurturing environment is key
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Leon Festinger’s Experiment “When Prophecy Fails” (1956) (Cognitive Psychology’s Influence on Social Psychology)
- Classic covert participant observation study
- Infiltrated a UFO cult (“The Seekers”) that believed a great flood was coming and they, as true believers, would be rescued by aliens in a flying saucer from the planet “Clarion”
- Cult members were totally committed to the belief
- Aliens never came as predicted by the cult leader
- Cult members adjusted their belief: “The little group, sitting all night long, had spread so much light that God had saved the world from the destruction.”; dissonance caused them to create new story
- Goal of the study was to study the anxiety that would result when the prophecy failed – resulted in the term “cognitive dissonance”
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Leon Festinger (Cognitive Psychology’s Influence on Social Psychology)
- Cognitive Dissonance
- The state of holding two or more conflicting cognitions simultaneously
- People have a motivational drive to reduce dissonance by altering existing cognitions, adding new ones to create a consistent belief system, or by reducing the importance of any one of the dissonant elements
- Similar to Freud’s ego defense mechanism of rationalization
- Examples:
- A person who enjoys smoking (behavior) knows it can cause cancer (cognition)...This causes dissonance
- Resolved by stating that he/she needs it to “calm the nerves”
-Problem: An individual can come to believe their own “lie” and “double-down” when confronted with the dissonance (the truth)
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Other Important Contributions (Cognitive Psychology’s Influence on Social Psychology)
- Stanley Milgram’s Obedience Studies
- Philip Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment (SPE)
- Both share important contributions to social psychology research
- Both share important contributions to ethics in research with regard to protecting human subjects (i.e., informed consent, deception, debriefing)
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Criticisms of Milgram’s Work (Update)
- Recent discovery of documents and audiotapes found in Yale archives
- “Authority” figures often went off script and became more coercive
- Some subjects may have known the learner was faking
- In other various of the study, fewer, if any, people obeyed
- Puts question to the external validity of the studies
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Stanford Prison Experiment Criticisms
- Ecological validity
- Criticized that mock prison and short time period could result in such extreme depersonalization
- Participant bias selection
- Dispositional aggression higher and dispositional empathy lower among those who volunteer for prison study as compared to a nondescript psychological study (Carnahan & McFarland, 2007)
- Demand characteristics
- Students were most likely able to guess the purpose of the study (Banuazizi & Movahedi, 1975)
- Zimbardo’s dual role
- Principal investigator and prison superintendent
- May have influenced the behavior of participants early in the study (i.e., the guard orientation)
- Variance in guard behavior
- Few SPE guards actually embraced the “bad guard” role
- More were unwilling to adopt such roles
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British Broadcasting Corporation Prison Study
- 8-day period
- Random assignment to prisoner and guard roles
- Discrepant results
- No abusive (guard) or submissive (prisoner) behaviors (the prisoners revolted and tried to establish a new regime)
- Role adoption depended upon group identification
- Guards did not form a cohesive group
- Did not identify with their role
- Did not their authority
- Prisoners formed a cohesive group
- Identified with their role
- Overtook the guards
-Suggests that it is powerlessness and the failure of groups that makes tyranny psychologically acceptable
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Alfred Bandura - Social Learning Theory (SLT)
- Aka Observational Learning
- A brand of behaviorism more compatible with cognitive and social psychology
- One doesn’t have to be rewarded/punished to learn/lose a behavior
- Bobo Doll Experiments
- Major contribution: You don’t need to be punished directly; you can learn by watching someone
- Ex: learn you need to slow down if you see someone else get ticket
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Mirror Neurons
- An added neurological factor to SLT
- Neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so.
- Enables imitation and empathy
- Hypothesized deficit area in autism spectrum disorders
- Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
- John Robison (Ingenious Minds)
- Ex: see someone run into door, and you flinch
- Autistic people have trouble with mirror neurons
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SLT Raises Important Questions
- Antisocial & Prosocial Behavior
- How do popular music and video games influence behavior?
- How does this influence personal responsibility?
- How can we use SLT to improve helping behaviors?
- Psychopathy
- How would SLT explain the development of eating disorders in teenage girls?
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Artificial Intelligence
- The extent to which machines can replicate the mental powers of humans
- Combination of cybernetics, information theory, and computer technology
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Alan Turing and the Turing Test
- Can machines think?
- Weak AI – can only simulate human mental attributes
- Searle’s Chinese Room – Computers only manipulate symbols, but no meaning is attached to them
- Strong AI – it is a mind capable of understanding and having mental states
- Turing Test: A test to see if a machine can pass for a human
- Annual Turing Test Competitions (Society for the Study of AI)
- No computer has passed it as of October 2018
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American Psychological Association
- Founded in 1892 by Stanley Hall
- In 1944, organized 18 divisions and included psychology as a profession and a means of promoting human welfare
- Current Mandate
- Encourage the development and application of psychology
- Promote research in psychology (i.e., methods, application)
- Establish ethics, educational standards, etc.
- Provide professional support (e.g., journals, conferences)
-Currently close to 120,000 members
- Comprised of 56 numbered divisions, 54 are active
- Shows the diversity of the field
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Other Associations
- Association for Psychological Science
- Formerly American Psychological Society
- Regional
- Eastern Psychological Association
- Midwestern Psychological Association
- New England Psychological Association
- Rocky Mountain Psychological Association
- Southeastern Psychological Association
- Southwestern Psychological Association
- Western Psychological Association
- State
- American Counselors Association (national, regional, and state)
- By Discipline or Interest
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Current Issues - Basic vs. Applied Psychology
- In other words, science vs. application
- Basic research: theory- focused, hypothesis- testing science driven by a quest for knowledge
- Applied research: problem-solving focus with application to the real world
- Tensions from the past continue today
- APA stresses they are of equal importance
- Is psychology a science?
- Some aspects are scientific and others are not
- Should psychology be unified?
- Individual view
- Best that we all “play nice together”
-Acknowledge that this is a very diverse field comprised of a collection of different facts, theories, assumptions, methodologies, and goals
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Training for Clinical Psychologists
- Boulder Model
- Clinicians should have a Ph.D. in psychology
- Ph.D. Vs. Psy.D.
- Psy.D.: 1968 - U of I; 1968 - California School of Professional Psychology
- Many other programs soon followed
- Professional/independent school (e.g., CSPP, Argosy) vs. traditional programs (e.g., Indiana State University, Wheaton College)
- Controversy over professional/independent schools
- Same academic process with a few differences
- Same licensure exam: Examination for Professional Practice in Psychology (EPPP)
- EPPP is currently being revised
- Same opportunities for board certification: American Board of Assessment Psychology (ABAP) (Board certified means you got your license, and a few years later, you take ABAP and earn another credential; not mandatory)
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Perspective Authority
- The battle for a service and an identity
- Psychology vs. Psychiatry
-Post-doctoral Masters Degree in Clinical Psychopharmacology
- New Mexico, Louisiana, Illinois, Iowa, Idaho, Oregon, New Jersey(?)
- With restrictions (ex: can’t prescribe to children, pregnant women, etc.)
-What are the advantages of psychologists having prescription privileges?
