TEST #1 Flashcards
1
Q
The Universe
A
Everything there is
2
Q
The Big Bang Theory
A
Formed the Universe
Age (14ish billion years)
A big explosion where all matter started and the universe expanded out
3
Q
The Red Shift
A
The doppler effect (sound or light that can be treated as waves, wavelength and frequency- if the sound producing thing is coming toward you, the frequency increases, away->decreases)
4
Q
Cosmic Background Spectrum
A
Calculation of cosmic matter
5
Q
Galaxies
A
Systems of stars
100 billion in the universe
Distance (100,000 to millions of light years)
6
Q
Light year
A
How far light travels in a year
Light takes 8 minutes to get to the earth from the sun
7
Q
What are the different shapes of galaxies?
A
Elliptical
Spiral
Irregular
8
Q
Milky Way
A
(Our galaxy)
Spiral Shaped
100,000 light years
Disk shaped, thinner in the center
9
Q
What is at the center of our solar system?
A
The sun
And then the rest is made up of planets, moons, comets, asteroids, interplanetary medium
10
Q
Interplanetary medium
A
Atoms floating, but essential a vacuum
11
Q
List the planets of our solar system in order.
A
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
12
Q
What are considered the “innermost planets?”
A
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars
13
Q
What are some characteristics of “innermost planets?”
A
Inner, minor, terrestrial
High density
14
Q
What are considered the “outermost planets?”
A
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
15
Q
What are some characteristics of “outermost planets?”
A
Outer, major
Low density
16
Q
What are some similarities between “innermost” and “outermost” planets?
A
All revolve around the sun in the same direction, elliptical orbits, pretty much same plane, all planets tend to rotate on their axis, many of them have moons
17
Q
What are smaller bodies within our solar system?
A
dwarf planets, Ceres (asteroid belt), Trans Neptunian (outside of pluto), asteroids, meteorites (iron-fe-ni alloy, stoney-rocks, stoney-iron), comets (icy, highly elliptical) , gas and dust
18
Q
The Nebular Hypothesis
A
Formed the Solar System
Spinning cloud of gas and dust
Then it condenses, small particles start attracting each other, and also the whole thing is spinning
19
Q
Plate Tectonics
A
Theory that explains outermost phenomena of earth
earthquakes, mountain chains, volcanoes, deep-ocean trenches
20
Q
Structure of the Earth
A
Inner core, outer core, mantle, crust
21
Q
Inner core of the Earth
A
Solid iron and nickel
22
Q
Outer core of the Earth
A
Liquid iron and nickel
23
Q
Mantle of the Earth
A
Rocky, solid, high pressure and temperature, solid mantle can flow like putty or magma
24
Q
Crust of the Earth
A
Oceanic (thinnest, under oceans) and continental (thicker)
25
What is the Lithosphere?
Crust
Part of the upper mantle is also in the lithosphere
100kmish thick
“sphere of rock”
Divided into plates that move (a lot of plate tectonic activity happens at these boundaries)
26
What is the Asthenosphere?
Mantle
“weak sphere”
Convection drives the movement of plates (enough flow to it, viscosity)
27
What are plates in Plate Tectonics composed of?
They are lithospheric plates
28
Divergent Plate Boundary
Plates pull apart
Hot mantle material below rises up
Solid mantle material as it rises, melts (magma)
29
Mid-Atlantic Ridge
Example of a divergent plate boundary
Magma chamber beneath the ridge
Builds oceanic crust constantly
Liquid rises and solidifies, igneous rock is formed; in this case, basalt
30
What type of rock is oceanic crust?
Basalt
31
What are examples of divergent plate boundary activity?
Oceanic-ridges, faults (earth is stretched), and earthquakes
32
What happens to continental crust at a divergent plate boundary?
Similar to oceanic, but volcanoes are formed.
33
Convergent Plate Boundary (oceanic under oceanic)
Subduction zone
Melting of down-going slab
Line of volcanic islands along subduction zone
34
What is the deepest oceanic under oceanic zone?
Mariana trench, not much sediment “sediment starved” (pacific plate under phillipine plate)
35
Convergent Plate Boundary (oceanic under continental)
Subduction zone
Oceanic plate is thinner and denser (always oceanic under continental)
Oceanic subduction, causes melting, water is released, magma rises, (crystallizes below surface) igneous rock formed or (magma surfaces) chain of volcanoes are formed
36
What are examples of oceanic under continental formations?
Cascades, Pacific northwest-St. Helens, the Andes
| Beniat waldotty zone: earthquake zone
37
Convergent Plate Boundary (continental/continental collision)
Typically ocean is subducted away and ocean is stripped away and continents collide, tiny subduction of continental
Mountains and earthquakes
38
What are examples of continental collision formations?
India, Himalayas
India used to be south of Asia and then it eventually collided and formed a mountain range
Also Mt. Everest and the Tibetan Plateau
39
Transform Plate Boundary
Horizontal motion
Slides past one another
Earthquakes, no melting
No igneous activity
40
What are transform faults?
Offsets of divergent boundaries, boundaries want to be straight
(strike/slip fault)
41
At which boundaries can earthquakes occur?
All three
42
At which boundaries can mountains be created?
Divergent and convergent
Andes, Himilayans, Cascades=divergent
Convergent mountains under the ocean
Some transform
43
At which boundaries can volcanoes occur?
Divergent and convergent boundaries
Mt. veneer or Mt. Fiji
Divergent boundary volcanoes are under the ocean
44
James Hutton
father of modern geology, came up with uniformitarianism
45
Atoms
smallest part of an element that retains the properties of that element
46
What are the subatomic particles that make up an atom?
nucleus, electrons, cloud or field
47
What is the nucleus of an atom composed of?
protons and neutrons
48
Charge of a proton
+1 charge, 1 amu
49
Charge of a neutron
+1 charge, 1 amu
50
Charge of an electron
-1 charge, 1/2000 amu
51
Isotope
two of the same atoms, the same atomic number, but different mass
Ex: Oxygen 16 (8 neutrons) , 17 (9 neutrons), 18 (10 neutrons)
52
When are electrons stable?
When they have a filled outer shell
53
Ionic Bonding
(no longer electrically neutral)
(+)=cation
(-)=anion
Opposite charges attract
54
Covalent Bonding
Electrons are shared
55
Metallic Bonding
“sea” of electrons
56
What is the most common type of bonding?
Ionic
57
What are the most common elements in the Earth's crust and mantle?
```
O -2 (most common)
Si +4
Al +3
Fe +2, +3
Ca +2
Na +1
K +1
Mg +2 (least common)
SiO2=quartz
“over sized apples feel cold not kinda mushy”
```
58
Anions
Larger than atoms (pick up electrons, cloud expands)
59
Cations
Smaller than atoms (give up electrons, cloud contracts)
60
(atomic number) Z=
of protons=# of electrons in an atom
61
Crystal Structure
Anions held together by smaller cations
| Structure: anions with smaller cations in holes
62
Crystalline
Atoms are in a systematic, organized arrangement
63
Crystal Lattice
All directions indefinitely, 14 different kinds
| Ex: halite (NaCl)
64
Amorphous
Atoms are randomly arranged
65
Mineral
Naturally occurring
Crystalline
Inorganically formed
66
Mineral examples
```
Pyroxene Ca(Mg,Fe)Si206
Olivine (Mg,Fe),SiO4 OR Mg2-xFexSi04
```
67
Coupled Solid Solution
Ions maintain charge balance
Plagioclase ( to change one thing you have to change the other) (most common mineral in the earth’s crust
Mg and Fe are similar in radius (typically the same charge +2)
68
Mineral’s Properties
Crystal structure, color, streak, cleavage, luster, fracture, form, specific gravity, magnetism, etc.
69
Streak
Rub against streak plate
70
Luster
The appearance of light reflected from a mineral
71
Cleavage
```
(how they break)
Micas, one direction of cleavage
Some have two direction 90 degrees break planes
Some have two not at 90 degrees
3 at 90 degrees
3 not at 90 degrees (calcite)
4 (flourite)
```
72
Fracture
(no cleavage planes) (ex: quarts)
73
Specific gravity/density
Weight of mineral in water vs. weight of the mineral in air
74
Strength of minerals in order
1. Talc
2. Gypsum
3. Calcite
4. Fluorite
5. Apatitie
6. Orthoclase
7. Quartz
8. Topaz
9. Corundum
10. Diamond
75
Diamond and graphite are pure carbon
Diamond: transparent color, non-metallic luster, white streak, 10 hardness, 3.5 specific gravity, octahedra form, insulator of electricity
Strong bond!!
Graphite: black color, metallic luster, black streak, 1-2 hardness, 2.0 specific gravity, plates or flakes form, conductor of electricity
Weak bond!!
76
Polymorphs
“many forms”
77
What are the 8 minerals make up 92% of the crust?
```
Plagioclase feldspars (39%)
Potassium feldspars (12%)
Quartz (12%)
Pyroxenes (11%)
Non-Silicates (8%)
```
78
Native Elements
C, Au, Ag
79
Sulfides
S2-
Pyrite (fools gold), FeS2
Mine this and then purify
80
Oxides
02-
| Hematite, Fe3O2
81
Hydroxides
OH-
Brucite
Mg(OH)2
82
Halides
Cl-, F-
Halite, NaCl
Mined for salt
83
Carbonates
CO2-
| Calcite, CaCO3
84
Sulfates
SO42-
| Barite, BaSO4
85
Phosphates
PO43-
| Apatite (wit Cl and F)
86
Silicates
SiO44-
| MOST ABUNDANT GROUP OF MINERALS
87
What are some things to remember about silicates?
Most important
Earth’s crust
Upper mantle
Si and O+ other elements
88
What is the basic structural unit of silicates?
silica tetrahedron
Tetrahedral coordination, Isolated tetrahedra (share no corners), Double tetrahedra (share one corner), Ring structures, Chain structures, Sheet structure, Framework structure
89
Petrology
Study of rocks
90
Rock
Solid aggregate of minerals, any consolidated portion of the earth’s crust
91
Stone
Economic or cultural
92
Igneous rock
(fire rocks)
Molten rock
Magma if below surface of the earth, lava if above surface of the earth
93
Sedimentary rock
(accumulation and lithification of unconsolidated mineral fragments)
Surface
Layered (beds, strata); stratified
94
Metamorphic rock
(changed rock)
Alteration of pre-existing rock
Temperature and pressure
Chemical effects
95
What are examples of igneous rocks?
basalt and granite
96
Mineral Composition of Igneous Rocks
Ultramafic: olivine, pyroxenes
Mafic: pyroxenes, plagioclase (Ca-rich)
Intermediate: plagioclase (Ca, Na), Amphibole
Felsic: orthoclase, plagioclase (Na-rich), quartz
97
Texture Composition of Igneous Rocks
Size, shape, and arrangement of the mineral grains
Size is Important in igneous rocks
Can you see the grains?
Yes= Phaneritic
No= Aphanitic
Porphyritic texture: two different grain sizes
Obsidian: glassy texture (usually dark colored)
98
Cooling Rates on the Composition of Igneous Rocks
Plutonic/intrusive; slow cooling (phaneritic tendencies)
Volcanic/extrusive: fast cooling
Very fast cooling is the only way to make a glass, always extrusive, maybe under water
Porphyritic implies two cooling processes, large grains form under the surface but surfaces (aphanitic), or big grains under the surface and small grains are phaneritic
99
Pyroclastic rocks
```
“hot-broken”
Blown out of volcanoes
Solid when it hits the ground
Welded together
<0.25” fine=ash-called a tuff
0.25" to 2.0" - volcanic breccia
```
100
What is the Original Question?
All rocks from the same “parent” magma (same source of the magma)
Different parent magmas (different magma sources)
101
Bowens Reaction Series
A systematic sequence of minerals that crystallize from magmas
Continuous side and a discontinuous side
102
Fractional Crystallization
Crystals removed from liquid
Cannot react
Composition of the system changes
103
What are igneous rocks composed of?
Mafic and felsic material
104
What are the steps of fractional crystallization?
```
Start with Basalt
1st to crystallize are (ultra)mafic
–Olivine and Ca-Plagioclase
Remove these minerals:
Liquid enriched in felsic material
The more felsic liquid:
– Andesite
– Rhyolite (granite).
```
105
How do you remove crystals?
Crystal Settling
– Common Mechanism
– Gravity
106
Magmatic differentiation
N.L. Bowen early 1900s
Generate most of the igneous rocks from basalt
Basaltic liquid
Partially melt peridotite
If we crystalize a mafic rock, we get pyroxenes and plagioclase
107
Peridotite
Phanoritic, coarse grain, ultramafic (Fe and Mg)-ferromagnesium, minerals are plagioclase (calcium rich)
108
What are two minerals that are very critical?
Pyroxenes and olivines
Upper mantle is mostly olivine
And Abundant pyroxenes
109
A range of temperatures is needed for melting (is demonstrated by what?)
```
BOWENS REACTION SERIES
Olivine (highest temperature)- first to crystallize
Pyroxene
Amphibole
Biotite mica
```
110
Bowen's Hypotheses
```
Start with basalt
Liquid evolves
Fractional crystallization
Intermediate and felsic
(experimental and field science supports this)
```
111
What are problems with Bowen's Hypotheses?
```
Huge masses of granite
Where is the basalt?
Melting of more felsic matherials
Evolutionary processing
Assimilation, country rock and magma
```
112
What are occurrences of igneous rocks?
Extursive, aphenetic
| Intrusive, plutonic
113
How are extrusive rocks formed?
Volcanic activity (eruptions of mafic, felsic, or intermediate material)
114
What is the shape of volcanoes in Hawaii?
Flat
| due to basaltic, mafic lava
115
What is the shape of volcanoes in the Cascades?
Tall
| due to viscous lava
116
Viscosity
lava's resistance to flow
| higher the viscosity, slower the flow
117
What is mafic viscosity?
fluid, flows fast
118
What is felsic viscosity?
viscous, flow slow
119
What causes a difference in viscosity?
The SiO2 content
Tetrahedra hook up together, higher the silica content, higher viscosity
Mafic are hotter
120
What are mafic/balsaltic eruptions like?
Usually non-violent, lava flows easily, spreads out and flows long distances
Fissure eruptions
Build thick sequences of thin layers
121
What are some examples of results from mafic/balsaltic eruptions?
```
Flood basalts
Very large volumes
Columbia river (50,000mi2)
Deccan traps, India
Ocean basins
Shield volcanoes (Hawaii)
```
122
What are felsic or intermediate eruptions like?
Erupt explosively at times
| Pyroclastic material
123
What are some examples of results from felsic or intermediate eruptions?
```
Stratovolcanoes (layered)
Due to subduction zones
Vesuvius
Ranier (ranier beer, cascades)
Fujiyama
Kilamanjaro
```
124
What are three types of volcanoes?
Shield (big)- under sea
Strato
Cinder (small)- more felsic
125
How are intrusive/plutonic rocks formed?
Magma rises
126
What is the composition of intrusive rocks?
```
Any composition
Most large ones, felsic to intermediate
Rare mafic intrusions
Felsic rocks (more viscous) volatile rich
Less likely to reach the surface
```
127
What is a batholith?
```
Large intrusions
(a lot of the times intrusions overlap)
Occur at the surface
Cores of mountain chains
Less dense than surrounding rock
```
128
What are other intrusive forms?
```
Stocks (like batholiths)
Smaller, <100mi2
Dike
Tabular, cut across layering
Sill
Tabular, parallel to layering
Dikes and sills can be any composition
Vary in size, great dike of Rhodesia
```
129
How are igneous rocks influenced by plate tectonics?
```
Mid-ocean ridge
(Spreading, solid mantle rises and melts- basaltic magma, drop in pressure, makes it melt, and the liquid will rise faster than the solid mantle then the magma rises and cools and solidifies)
Subduction zone
Water is introduced into the earth
Melts the mantle
Magmas rise (intrusive and extrusive)
```
130
How can you determine the stability of rocks?
Most things that get to the surface are not stable
131
What are the steps of forming sedimentary rocks?
```
Weathering of preexisting material
Transport the material by wind, water, and glaciers
Deposition and burial
Lithification
Source area
```
132
Weathering
Disintegration and decomposition at or near the surface of the rock
Weather due change from initial environment than the surface
133
Mechanical Weathering
break up pre-existing rock
No change chemically or mineralogically
Big things->smaller things
134
Forms of Mechanical Weathering
frost wedging
heating and cooling
exfoliation
biological factors
135
Frost Wedging
As rocks come to the surface there are small cracks and fractures that open up, any opening will provide water access, if water enters and freezes it expands and cracks the rock
136
Heating and cooling
When the rock is heated it expands, when it cools it contracts (every time we heat a rock, stresses cause fracture)
137
Exfoliation
Rocks break into sheets because of the release of pressure
138
Biological factors
plants and animals decompose rocks
139
Chemical Weathering
structures of minerals altered by adding or removing elements
140
What typically aids chemical weathering?
Water
141
What are the three types of chemical weathering?
Solution, oxidation, and hydrolysis
142
Solution
Soluble in water
Halite (salt dissolves in water)
Natural rain waters tend to be acidic with CO2 gas
143
Oxidation
```
Rust
4Fe+3O2=2Fe203
Chemical reaction, electrons are lost
Fe-Mg minerals (ferromagnesian minerals)
Olivines pyroxenes, biotite
Sulfides, such as FeS2
```
144
Hydrolysis
```
Reaction with water
Aided by acidic water
Ex: K-feldspar -> clay mineral as a weathering product (sediment)
Kaolinite
Clays from by hydrolysis
```
145
How do chemical and mechanical weathering go together?
Mechanical weathering increases surface area
Spheroidal weathering: chemical weathering that affects jointed bedrock and results in the formation of concentric or spherical layers of highly decayed rock within weathered bedrock that is known as saprolite
146
Which rocks weather more quickly?
Bowen's Reaction Series
Higher temperatures, weather quickly
Goldich’s weathering series (chemical weathering)
147
Soil horizons in order
O, A, E, B, C, Untethered parent material
148
O horizon
loose and partly decayed organic matter (topsoil, true soil or “solum”)
149
A horizon
mineral matter mixed with some humus
| Soluble out; organic matter added
150
E horizon
light colored mineral particles (zoon of eluviation and leaching)
151
B horizon
accumulation of clay transported from above
| accumulation
152
C horizon
partially altered parent material
| transitional
153
Erosion
erosion after weathering
154
Mass wasting
Slow movement: creep
| Rapid movement: mudflows, landslides, slump, rockslide, earth, debris flow
155
Creep
Slow motion of material down a hill, aided by expanding and contracting through freezing and thawing
156
Deposition
Materials being transported ends up somewhere
Various environments of deposition
Then buried and lithified
157
Sedimentary Processes
Weathering
Transport
Deposition
Litification
158
Sedimentary rocks make up most of the Earth's energy
Coal, oil, gas, uranium
159
How much of the world is covered by sedimentary rocks?
60 to 70%
160
What are two kinds of sedimentary rocks?
detrital and chemical
161
Detrital clastic
accumulations of size of particles
162
quartz sandstrone
mostly quartz
163
arkose
mostly feldspar-more prone to weathering than quartz
164
greywacke
rock fragments, quartz, feldspar
165
shale
clay sized minerals
166
Chemical sediments
dissolving rocks, natural waters, organism, composition, dolostone, chert
167
Evaporates
halite, gypsum, (left behind as water evaporates)
168
What is the most abundant sediment rock?
Shale (70%)
| clay minerals, hydrolysis of feldspars
169
What is the percentage sandstone and limestone?
20%
| 10%
170
What are the forms of transportation?
Water, stream
| solution, suspension, moving along the bottom of the channel
171
Deposition with continental factors
```
Lakes and rivers
Flood plains
Alluvial fans
Sand dunes
Glacial deposit
```
172
Deposition with marine factors
```
Most sediment ends in the ocean
Zones- sediments accumulate
Shore zone
Continental shelf
Continental slope
Deep sea floor
```
173
Litification
converted into solid rock (pressure and cementation)
cementation
(calcium carbonate, silicon dioxide, quartz)
174
How do you turn sediments into sedimentary rock?
Diagenesis and lithification
175
What are common precipitates?
```
Calcium carbonate (calcite)
Silicon dioxide (quartz)
```
176
For which of the following sediments does compaction play an important role?
Mud, Cobble, Gravel, or Sand?
Mud
177
Sedimentary structure
```
Strata or beds-bedding planes
Cross-bedding
From a current flowing (water or wind)
Ripples, uneven surface
Graded beds (turbidity current, as energy drops, the largest particles settle first, in time smaller particles settle to produce graded bed)
Ripple marks
Mud cracks
```
178
Fossils
remains or traces of prehistoric life
Shells, bones, footprints
Buried and lithified
Some sediments have fossils
179
What are the ways that fossils are preserved?
Fossilized plant or animal parts
Impressions
Molds (filled in impression)
Thin carbon film
180
When is preservation best?
When there is rapid burial and a presence of hard parts (shells or bones)
