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Lower division psych test > Test 2 > Flashcards

Test 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Anecdote

A

Anecdote: a short amusing or interesting story about a real incident or person.

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2
Q

Testimonial

A

Testimonial: A formal statement testifying to benefits received.

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3
Q

Case study

A

Case study: an intensive analysis of an individual. Common in psych and medicine. Can also be of a social unit. Maybe like a study on a cult or an event like a hurricane.

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4
Q

Anecdotes Testimonials and Case Studies are not the same.

A

Anecdotes Testimonials and Case Studies are not the same.

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5
Q

Case studies are often scientific studies, whereas anecdotes and testimonials are not.

A

Case studies are often scientific studies, whereas anecdotes and testimonials are not.

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6
Q

Anecdotes and testimonials are often used to

A

sell something.

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7
Q

Nonetheless, be careful what kinds of generalizations

A

we make from data (scientific and not) from single subjects.

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8
Q

All are stories of a single event, person, or experience

A

Alone, they cannot act as evidence of a claim.

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9
Q

Case studies in psychology typically involve

A

in-depth analysis of an individual with a unique condition.

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10
Q

Many (but not all) case studies have been published in

A

scientific journals

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11
Q

Case studies involve and have led to

A

Peer review prior to publication.
They may serve as a starting point for further research
Some have also led to ethics reforms.
Data is usually collected using a variety of methods or techniques.
Are often collected longitudinally.
Are often qualitative in nature. Participant observations, notes from therapy or interview

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12
Q

Qualitative vs quantitative:

A

descriptions vs amounts.

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13
Q

Famous examples in psychology: little albert and the conditioning of fear. Phineas gage and the role of the prefrontal cortex. Genie the feral child. Anna O and the cathartic method. Chris Sizemore and dissociative identity disorder. H.M and memory.

A

Famous examples in psychology: little albert and the conditioning of fear. Phineas gage and the role of the prefrontal cortex. Genie the feral child. Anna O and the cathartic method. Chris Sizemore and dissociative identity disorder. H.M and memory.

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14
Q

Why anecdotes and testimonials but not statistics and studies?
Vividness effect:

A

the condition in which the vividness of information makes select information more accessible from memory.

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15
Q

Three components to a vivid claim:

A
  1. Emotionally interesting
  2. Concrete and image provoking
  3. “near” in time and space
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16
Q

Anecdotes and testimonials often exploit the vividness effect
Sometimes case studies too.
They make spectacular, rare, or inaccurate claims easier to bring to mind.

A

Anecdotes and testimonials often exploit the vividness effect
Sometimes case studies too.
They make spectacular, rare, or inaccurate claims easier to bring to mind.

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17
Q

Vividness effect and persuasiveness

Summary:

A

The vividness of a message or claim is persuasive only if the vividness is on message.
If a message or claim is vivid but off-message, it isn’t persuasive.

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18
Q

Telling a story

How basic communication can introduce distortion in what is communicated.

A

Telling a story

How basic communication can introduce distortion in what is communicated.

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19
Q

Sharpening and leveling.

A

Messages are distorted by sharpening the gist of the message while leveling the less essential details.
Important stuff Is emphasized.
Less important stuff is de-emphasized.
Like a game of telephone

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20
Q

Why does this happen for sharpening and leveling?

A

Limits on human memory
Implicit demand not to burden the listener with too many details
Implicit agreement with listener to be entertaining

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21
Q

Immediacy

A

Make a claim seem more important by increasing its immediacy
How Close the original source is to the claim

“My cousins wife’s aunt saw a ghost” -> “my wife saw a ghost”.

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22
Q

Informativeness

A

If they contain many details or qualifications, messages may be considered uninformative.
So the speaker might omit them.
Different from leveling because the qualifications may be very important.
Omitting them may alter the truth.

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23
Q

Stretch the facts so that:

A

Audience gets the point

A greater truth is publicized.

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24
Q

A Vexing paradox.
If others messages are distorted, should we rely on our own experience, memory, or perception to provide us the truth?
Some say no these are fallible
Shrug lol

A
  1. Sharpen your statistical understanding
  2. Be on the look out for concordance between experience or claims and base rates
  3. Use critical thinking tools including healthy skepticism
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25
Q

Correlation

A

A correlation is a statistical term used to describe the degree to which two variables change in a pattern together.

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26
Q

Correlational design

A

a type of research study wherein two or more variables and their relationship to one another are measured.
Uses a correlation analysis or a regression analysis to statistically test for and quantify associations between variables.

27
Q

Why use a correlational design?

A

It is a very flexible type of analysis.
You can study variables that you can measure and manipulate.
You can study variable’s that you can measure but cannot manipulate
“Built-in-ness” of the variable.
Ethical reasons.
Some other factor

It can start as a starting point for further research

28
Q

Correlational designs

Variables to be studied can come in many forms

A

Categorical like gender or wins/losses
Continuous like IQ or extraversion
A correlational design can be used to analyze data from experiments or non-experimental research
Experimental like dosage and symptom reduction
Nonexperimental like depression and suicide rates
And you can analyze longitudinal or cross sectional data
Longitudinal like changes in symptoms over time.
Cross sectional like responses on a survey taken once.

29
Q

Correlation Coefficient.

A

A statistic ranging from -1 to 1 that is computed by assessing the strength and direction of an association between two variables.
Remember Y=MX+B?
It describes a linear relationship.
R=.78: strong, positive relationship.
EXAMPLE= time spent running has a strong positive correlation with calories burned.

R=-.49: Moderate, negative (or inverse) relationship.
Example= Absences from class has a moderate, negative relationship with final grade.
R=.03: zero (or no) relationship
Example= There is no relationship between the number of people who drown in a year and how many Nicolas Cage movies came out that year*

30
Q

Limitations of correlational designs

A
  1. Directionality.
  2. Third variables.
  3. Linearity.
  4. Spurious correlations.
  5. Determining causality.
31
Q

Directionality problem=

A

Inability to determine cause and effect between two variables that are correlated. Moving to Colorado won’t make you lose weight lololol.
This is what a correlation tells us: X—Y they are related.
Potential causal relationships:
1. X causes Y
2. Y causes X
3. X and Y are related because they are related to a third Z variable.

32
Q

Third variable problem:

A

A correlation between two variables may be due to the common correlation between each of the variables and a third variable. Eg, more ice cream sales correlate with forest fire rates.

There are ways that researchers try to address third variables.
And potentially remove their impact.
Eg by using a covariate in their analyses

There are also research questions for which identifying a third variable is a key part of the study design.
Eg mediation or moderation studies.

33
Q

Linearity

A

Not all variables change together in a linear pattern.
Linear= straight line
Curvilinear= curve
This can be useful to know but masked by an analysis that is looking only for linear relationships.

Outliers can disproportionately affect a correlation
Outlier=extreme score
. Can be addressed by visualizing your data
Simple form is the scatter plot.

34
Q

Spurious correlations

A

Things entirely unrelated have strong correlations.
They are coincidental associations.
Why does this happen? Don’t know lol.
Perhaps coincidences happen more than we think?

35
Q

Interpreting correlations:

A 
Negative relationship between doctor age and patient health
. Younger docs have healthier patients
Younger doctors accept healthier patients
Healthier people choose younger doctors
Younger people (who are healthier) see younger doctors
Younger doctors (fresh out of med school) have more up to date knowledge that leads to healthier patients.
36
Q

Determining causality

A

High burden of proof in science to say that anything causes anything else to change.
Causality= relationship between two variables such that change in on (the cause, IV) brings about change in the other (the effect, DV)
Typically reserved for the results of experiments.
We confuse coincidence with correlation and correlation with causality.

37
Q
  1. Case studies are:
A

a. often scientific studies, whereas anecdotes and testimonials are not.

38
Q
  1. An independent variable is
A

a. a variable that is manipulated by the experimenter.

39
Q

Case study=

A

a type of study that is an intensive analysis of an individual.
Can have problems with generalization.

40
Q

Correlational study=

A

a type of study wherein two or more variables and their relationship to one another is measured.
A study that uses a correlational design
Problem of causality.

41
Q

Experiment=

A

a type of study that involves the direct manipulation of an independent variable (IV) while controlling for as many other variables that could influence the dependent variable (DV) as possible.
Characteristics:
Random assignment
Control
Manipulation of one or a few variables of interest
Hold constant (or control for) other factors.

42
Q

Comparison

A

Compare changes in the DV across levels of the IV

Allows researchers to determine Cause and Effect relationships

43
Q

Independent and dependent variables.

A 
Independent variable (IV)= a variable that is manipulated by the experimenter. I.e. the cause.
Levels of the IV= conditions created by manipulation.
EG levels of stress = stress and no stress; levels of treatment= drug and placebo

Dependent variable (DV)= a variable being measured
IE the effect
Is expected to depend on the levels of the IV

44
Q

Experimental or treatment groups=

A

participants who receives the treatment (IV)

45
Q

Control or comparison group=

A

participants who do not receive the treatment.

46
Q

Experimental or treatment groups= participants who receives the treatment (IV)

Control or comparison group= participants who do not receive the treatment.

Many research questions concern differences between these two groups.
IE the groups are compared to each other on the DV
Using statistics, eg, a t-test, an analysis of variance (ANOVA)

Other terms may be used to refer to different participant groups.
IE it depends on the study.
Terms are often descriptive of what participants in that group have in common.

A

Experimental or treatment groups= participants who receives the treatment (IV)

Control or comparison group= participants who do not receive the treatment.

Many research questions concern differences between these two groups.
IE the groups are compared to each other on the DV
Using statistics, eg, a t-test, an analysis of variance (ANOVA)

Other terms may be used to refer to different participant groups.
IE it depends on the study.
Terms are often descriptive of what participants in that group have in common.

47
Q

Random assignment=

A

a procedure to create multiple study groups so that the groups are equivalent at the beginning of the study.
Idea: spread individual differences across the groups as evenly as possible.
Eliminates alternative explanations

48
Q

In practice: assign participants to groups at random.

A

Different from a random sample

Drawing a random group of participants (your sample) from the population you wish to study.

49
Q

Once upon a time there was a math contest: gender stereotyping and memory study.

Question: Do people use gender stereotypes to level and sharpen their memory and retelling of a story?
IV: Gender of the person in the story
Levels: Sylvias story, john’s story.

DVs:

  1. Degree of leveling in retelling
  2. Degree of sharpening in retelling

Sample: college students
Random assignments
Experimental group?
Comparison group?

Results:
Sylvias story:
Leveling omitting that sylvia hated her rival, beat her pillows, went running
Sharpening: adding stereotypically feminine details.
Johns story:
Leveling: omitting that john cried took a long bath, baked cookies.
Sharpening: adding stereotypically masculine details.
If confounding variables aren’t controlled, they can serve as an alternative explanation for a studys results.

A

Once upon a time there was a math contest: gender stereotyping and memory study.

Question: Do people use gender stereotypes to level and sharpen their memory and retelling of a story?
IV: Gender of the person in the story
Levels: Sylvias story, john’s story.

DVs:

  1. Degree of leveling in retelling
  2. Degree of sharpening in retelling

Sample: college students
Random assignments
Experimental group?
Comparison group?

Results:
Sylvias story:
Leveling omitting that sylvia hated her rival, beat her pillows, went running
Sharpening: adding stereotypically feminine details.
Johns story:
Leveling: omitting that john cried took a long bath, baked cookies.
Sharpening: adding stereotypically masculine details.
If confounding variables aren’t controlled, they can serve as an alternative explanation for a studys results.

50
Q

Determining Causality

A

Case studies-> Correlational designs-> Quasi-experimental designs-> True Experiments.

51
Q

Quasi-experimental=

A

a type of study that involves the use of preexisting variables to group individuals.
Characteristics:
Like a true experiment
Key difference: IV is indirectly manipulated by assignment
A quasi-experiment lacks random assignment
Instead, group membership is pre-existing

This can make interpretation tricky
Especially when it comes to causality

52
Q

Extraneous variables=

A

any variable not intentionally studied that presumably does not affect the results of the study

53
Q

Confounding variable=

A

an extraneous variable that correlates with both the IV and DV

54
Q
  1. To confirm a rule, it is best to look for ________
A

C. Disconfirmatory evidence

55
Q
  1. Confirmation bias is________
A

A. A type of selective thinking whereby we tend to notice and seek out what confirms our beliefs.

56
Q

Confirmation
E K 4 7
Rule: if a card has a vowel on one side, then it has an even number on the other side.
Which card do you turn on over to get an even number?
Why pick E and 7?
If a card has a vowel, then it has an even (if X then Y)

A

To falsify an if-then statement, you must find a case of X and not Y.
We can disconfirm the claim by examining vowels and odd numbers
-If E has an odd number on the back= disconfirmed the rule.
- If 7 has a vowel on the back= also disconfirmed the rule.
Even numbers and consonants are irrelevant.
-Rule doesn’t specify that consonants can’t have an even number on the other side
- Or that evens can’t have a consonant on the other side

57
Q

Confirmation Bias.

A

A type of selective thinking whereby we tend to notice and seek out what confirms our beliefs.
And ignore, undervalue, or neglect what contradicts our beliefs
Identified in multiple contexts
And has multiple contributory factors
For example, Polygraph readers who are told who the suspect is in advance.

58
Q

Self-serving bias.

A

A bias in which we attribute our successes to internal factors.

  • and our failures to external factors.
  • Confirms our beliefs about ourselves and maintains self-esteem
59
Q

Cognitive Ease

A

Confirmatory information is “cheaper” in the context of cognition
-It is more efficient to process
Disconfirmatory evidence is more difficult to deal with:
Consider alternative explanations
Figure out the base rates
These responses will require you to seek out additional evidence

60
Q

Other contributory factors
Memory: remember hits and forget misses
Emotions: feeling that confirmations are good, disconfirmations are bad
Congruence heuristic: search for information primes for confirmation IE the questions we ask tend to be designed to yield a “yes” response.
Sources: we tend to rely on information from those who agree with us and avoid those who don’t.

A

Other contributory factors
Memory: remember hits and forget misses
Emotions: feeling that confirmations are good, disconfirmations are bad
Congruence heuristic: search for information primes for confirmation IE the questions we ask tend to be designed to yield a “yes” response.
Sources: we tend to rely on information from those who agree with us and avoid those who don’t.

61
Q

An intensive analysis of an individual is a

A

case study

62
Q

A correlation coefficient:

A

varies between -1 and 1. Assesses the strength of an association between two variables. Assesses the direction of an association between two variables. Describes a linear relationship.

63
Q

The variable that is manipulated in an experiment is called a

A

ndependent variable.

64
Q

The self-serving bias says that no shit

A

The self-serving bias says that no shit

Lower division psych test (4 decks)

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