Test 2 Flashcards
(177 cards)
1
Q
Who is the founding father of functionalism?
A
Emile Durkheim
2
Q
Functionalism and the theories that fall under this main sociological paradigm are _______ in their approach to research.
A
Objective.
3
Q
What kind of methods does functionalism use to examine human behaviour?
A
Natural sciences
4
Q
What kind of approach does functionalism take?
A
Positivistic
5
Q
Strain theory is associated with what theorist?
A
Robert Merton
6
Q
What did early functionalists like Durkheim believe deviance was?
A
- Both a natural part of the social order
- Symptomatic of a problem that needed to be corrected (a disfunction)
7
Q
In terms of the social control of deviant behaviour, the solution was seen as _______ and ________ of the individual.
A
Treatment and Rehabilitation
8
Q
Treatment and Rehabilitation were seen as the solution of the individual in terms of what?
A
The social control of deviant behaviour
9
Q
What are three underlying assumptions in functionalism that were discussed in class but not mentioned in the text?
A
Consensus, status quo, and equilibrium
10
Q
Change the ____, not the _____
A
Person, system
11
Q
consensus
A
- Major criticism of functionalism (functionalism assumes what’s good for some is good for all)
- Assumes society is good the way it is
- Society is only good for those who ran it when you think about it (those in power)
- Leaves out the perspective of women and every minority group we can think of
12
Q
Equilibrium
A
- Suggests the system (society) must be running smoothly to maintain balance
- Analogy: set your thermostat at 70 degrees. Furnace turns on and off to maintain certain temp.
- Deviance is like excess heat in the system that triggers a cooling off response
- On the other hand, it there is not enough deviance in the system, it will adjust to create more to justify the agents of social control.
- Deviance is normal and there is always going to be some.
13
Q
Status Quo
A
- Keeping things the same.
- Functionalists embody the saying of “don’t fix what isn’t broken”
- Resistant to change.
14
Q
What did early functionalists see society as?
A
A smooth running machine
15
Q
What did early functionalists see the individual as?
A
- People are little pieces of the machine, playing their own role…in harmony
- People are immediately perfect-able through the process of socialization
16
Q
What did early functionalists see society’s job as?
A
to shape each person after itself…and the expectation is that individuals will want to conform
17
Q
What is Durkheim’s theory? Expanded later on by Merton in the form of ____ ____?
A
Anomie, Strain Theory
18
Q
When did Durkheim first introduce anomie?
A
in his study of suicide
19
Q
What did Durkheim define anomie as?
A
a state of normlessness/ social instability that occurs when traditional societal norms are weakened.
20
Q
What can anomie lead to?
A
confusion and detachment for members of the impacted society.
21
Q
What is anomie and what does it result in?
A
A social condition that results in deviance because individuals lose a sense of social regulation, which creates the conditions for increases in alcohol and drug use, vandalism, crime, murder… and suicide.
22
Q
What creates anomie?
A
Breakdown in social order, social disorganization, rapid social change
23
Q
What is Durkheim’s legacy?
A
- He paved the way for later theorists
- further examine how social instability and disconnection from collective norms creates an environment where deviance can thrive.
24
Q
What did Robert Merton believe?
A
He believed it was strain, not social disorganization, that created the conditions for deviant behaviour to occur.
25
Merton believed that strain develops when...?
when there is a discrepancy between culturally approved goals and the means available to achieve them.
26
What specific strain did Merton look at?
the strain between the achievement of the American Dream and the (limited) legitimate ways of achieving it…
27
Strain Theory
* Robert Merton
* The Strain between aspirations of the individual and the expectations in society
* Assumption: Money = Success
28
Legitimate means (Merton)
- Involves conforming
There are only certain legitimate means to attaining these goals
* Hard work
* Honesty
* Education
* Pay your dues
* Talent
29
Illegitimate Means (Merton)
- Theft
- Laziness
- Dishonesty
- Fraud
- Use of illegitimate means puts one in the category of deviant
30
Merton's Modes of Adaptation
- part of strain theory
- individual response to societal pressures
- disconnect between culturally approved goals and the legitimate means to achieve them
31
What is deviance to Merton?
- form of adaptation to the strain
- exists between “culturally prescribed aspirations and socially structured avenues for realizing these aspirations”
32
What are Merton's five modes of adaptation
- Conformity
- Innovation
- Ritualism
- Retreatism
- Rebellion
33
Structural Functionalism
* The structure of society and its systems produce structural strain that cause deviance
* Social conditions are frequently structured in such a way that they UNINTENTIONALLY produce deviance.
* Ex. You get stressed out about school, you start to take your friends ADD meds…
* Subcultural Solutions to strain (ie: police, medical schools, being a student)
34
Conformity (Merton)
* Goals: Accepted
* Means: Accepted
* Conformists strive to achieve society's goals (e.g., wealth, success) using legitimate, socially approved methods (e.g., education, hard work).
* Example: A person works hard at their job and saves money to achieve success.
35
Innovation
* Goals: Accepted
* Means: Rejected
* Innovators accept societal goals but reject or bypass the legitimate means to achieve them, often resorting to deviant or illegal methods.
* Example: A person engaging in fraud or theft to become wealthy.
36
Ritualism
* Goals: Rejected
* Means: Accepted
* Ritualists abandon or scale back societal goals but continue to adhere rigidly to institutionalized means. They follow rules for their own sake without aiming for broader success.
* Example: A bureaucrat who follows every rule meticulously but has no ambition for promotion.
37
Retreatism
* Goals: Rejected
* Means: Rejected
* Retreatists withdraw from societal goals and means altogether, often opting out of societal participation. This can manifest in behaviors like addiction or isolation.
* Example: Someone who becomes homeless by choice or uses drugs to escape societal pressures.
38
Rebellion
* Goals: Rejected/Changed
* Means: Rejected/Changed
* Rebels reject existing societal goals and means but seek to replace them with new ones, often advocating for radical change.
* Example: Revolutionaries or activists who seek to overthrow current systems and establish new norms.
39
what does Merton's modes of adaptation focus on?
Innovation and Deviance.
- Merton highlights that innovation is a common response when individuals lack legitimate opportunities to achieve success.
- Crime becomes a rational choice for achieving goals when legal/legitimate paths are blocked.
40
What are the three extensions of Strain Theory (building blocks)?
- Status Frustration and Delinquency (Albert Cohen)
- Differential Opportunity Theory (Cloward and Ohlin)
- General Strain Theory (Robert Agnew)
41
Status Frustration and Delinquency
- Albert Cohen
- expanded on Merton’s work by focusing on status frustration in young people.
- lower-class youth often lack the resources to achieve societal status through approved means
- form subcultures with different values that validate behaviors like delinquency.
42
Differential Opportunity Theory
- Cloward and Ohlin
- Emphasizes that access to illegitimate means varies across communities.
They identified three delinquent subcultures:
o Criminal Subcultures: Where youth learn from adult criminals.
o Conflict Subcultures: Where youth use violence for respect.
o Retreatist Subcultures: Where individuals retreat from both legitimate and illegitimate means, often through substance use.
43
General Strain Theory
- Robert Agnew
- Agnew broadened Strain Theory to include strains beyond economic goals, emphasizing strains from negative experiences (e.g., bullying, family issues) that can lead to deviance.
- Agnew’s work suggests that strains producing negative emotions can increase the likelihood of deviance, especially when coping resources are limited.
44
What are the criticisms and limitations of anomie and strain theory?
1. Over-emphasis on Economic Success
2. Doesn’t account for individual agency or the diversity of individuals responses of strain
3. Viewed as an American-focused theory (because it is) it is based on the American dream. This consensus may not apply across different cultures.
4. Doesn’t adequately account for gender and intersectionality. Theory is built on/developed by/for men
45
What are the four modern applications of strain theory?
Explaining Crime in Disadvantaged Communities
- Strain Theory continues to be relevant in explaining why marginalized communities, with limited access to legitimate opportunities, may have higher rates of deviance.
White-Collar Crime
- Merton’s theory is often applied to explain white-collar crime, as executives may ‘innovate’ in deviant ways (e.g., fraud) to achieve success in a competitive market.
Youth and Deviant Subcultures
- Concepts from Cohen and Cloward & Ohlin remain relevant in studies on gangs, where youth without access to mainstream paths may turn to alternative paths for status and economic success (alternative means of goal attainment).
Mental Health and Strain
- Agnew’s General Strain Theory has been applied to mental health, linking negative experiences (like bullying) to strain and deviant coping mechanisms, such as substance use or aggression.
46
Whose theory is Differential Association and what does it explain?
Edwin Sutherland's
- explains why some people become criminals and others do not.
47
What does differential association emphasize?
that deviance is LEARNED, and focus on the social environment rather than individual traits as the root cause of deviant behaviour.
48
Manifest and Latent functions
- Robert Merton
- Manifest Functions: Those that are visible, comprehensible and overt.
- Latent Functions: Those whose consequences are less obvious and often unrecognized
49
Eufunctions
- Eufunction: the positive consequences of deviance
o Contributes to social order
o 10 points
o Kingsley Davis: Sociology of Prostitution (1937)
50
10 eufunctions of deviance
1. Clarification of the Rules
2. Testing of the rules
3. Alternative means of goal attainment
4. Safety valve (Kingsley Davis: Sociology of Prostitution, 1937)
5. Tension release and solidarity
6. Boundary Maintenance
7. Scapegoating
8. Raising the value of conformity
9. Early warning system
10. Protection of vested interests
51
what is the systems approach?
- Stresses that society has borders and conflict between groups always seems to solidify these boundaries.
- When there is an enemy, the boundaries become very clear (Us vs. Them)
- Enemies within a society can lead to civil war
52
Dysfunction
- The negative functions of deviance
- All the things that contribute to stress and strain rather than the smooth operation of the whole.
- Social Control can be negative too.
53
Ideology of rehabilitation
- Basis for the criminal justice system
- Individual can be “fixed”
- When the system gives up, the deviant is labelled incorrigible (uncorrectable)
54
Implications
* Deviance is produced by social inequality
* Capitalism makes deviance inevitable
* We need to ask: Functional for whom?
* The Tyranny of the Majority
* Functionalism: as long as the majority is happy, that’s all that matters
55
What does Sutherland believe about deviance?
deviance is a normal outcome when individuals are exposed to excess definitions favourable to violations of the law.
56
How did Sutherland define "definitions"?
Define an action or a pattern of actions as either right or wrongs.
57
Definitions can be... (Sutherland)
* Favourable to actions that violation of the law
* Unfavourable to actions that violate the law
* They can also come in the form of ‘non-verbal’ expressions of approval or disapproval
58
A key element for Sutherland was _____?
Opportunity
- One must have the opportunity to engage in deviant behaviour
59
Sutherland's 9 key propositions to explain how deviant behaviour is learned
1. Deviance is learned
2. Learning occurs in interaction and communication with others
3. Learning takes place in intimate groups
4. Learning includes techniques justifications
5. Definitions of legal codes are central
6. Excess of definitions favouring deviance
7. Central variables affect the impact of favourable and unfavourable definitions
8. Learning mechanisms are universal
9. Deviance is not explained by needs or values
60
Deviance is learned (proposition)
* Criminal or deviant behavior is not biologically determined; it is learned, just like any other behavior.
* Every criminal needs a teacher. This statement sets forth Sutherland’s argument negating all other explanations for deviant behaviour
61
Learning occurs in interaction and communication with others (proposition)
* Personal relationships are the primary source of learning deviance.
* Sutherland – at the time – was referring to face to face communication and interaction; however, this proposition has been updated to also include the heavy influence of the mass media, the internet, and communication via technology.
62
Learning takes place in intimate groups (proposition)
* Intimate personal groups are the most significant sources of learning deviant behavior, rather than impersonal sources like watching television shows or reading books.
* Ideas about the world that are learned in these small intimate groups tend to be much more powerful than the ideas and concepts we learn from our larger social worlds.
63
Learning includes techniques and justifications
* Deviant behavior involves learning both the technical skills to commit the act (how) and the rationalizations or justifications that make the behavior acceptable (why).
64
Vocabularies of motive
justifications/reasons/excuses for our actions:
* Ex. “I had no other choice,” “the law is stupid anyway,” “I stole that cause I had to feed my family”
* When a jury lets someone off easier, it is cause they understand the vocabulary of motive
* *You can learn how to pick a lock, but you must learn why you did it.
65
Definitions of legal codes are central (propositions)
* Individuals learn definitions of laws as either favorable (supporting conformity) or unfavorable (supporting deviance).
* Example: Exposure to attitudes like “laws are unfair” encourage deviance
66
Excess of definitions favouring deviance (propositions)
* A person becomes deviant when their exposure to definitions favorable to deviance outweighs those that are unfavorable.
* Remember this as a scale. Exposed to more definitions in favour of the law, the scale tips one way. If exposed to more definitions of deviance, the scale tips the other ways
* *This is the central principle of the theory.
67
What is the central principle of Differential association theory?
Excess of definitions favouring deviance
68
Certain variables affect the impact of favourable and unfavourable definitions (propositions)
* Namely: Frequency, Duration, Priority, and Intensity:
* The likelihood of deviance depends on how often, how long, how early, and how strongly an individual is exposed to deviant influences.
69
Learning mechanisms are universal (propositions)
* The same processes that govern the learning of conforming behavior also govern the learning of deviant behavior.
* The process of learning criminal behaviour involves all of the same processes involved in any other type of learning, the only difference is WHAT is learned… not HOW it’s learned.
70
Deviance is not explained by needs or values (propositions)
* People commit crimes or deviant acts for reasons similar to why they conform—whether it’s meeting needs or achieving goals. The theory focuses on social learning, not individual motives.
* Deviance isn’t about needs, it’s about learned behaviors.
71
What is the key to the differential association theory?
Socialization plays a critical role in learning deviance, as individuals adopt (aka: LEARN) the norms and behaviour of the groups they associate with.
72
Strengths and Weaknesses of Differential Association
Strengths:
o Explains how deviance is learned in group settings.
o Provides insight into both street and white-collar crime.
o Accounts for socialization processes.
Weaknesses:
o Difficult to measure “definitions favorable to deviance.”
o Ignores structural factors like poverty, inequality, structural racism that might influence deviance.
o Underplays individual agency—why doesn’t everyone exposed to deviant definitions commit crimes?
73
Who created social learning theory?
Ronald Akers
74
Akers extended Sutherland's theory to include the elements of _____ and _______?
Reinforcement and Imitation
75
Akers agreed that deviance was learned, but he also believed that it was reinforced through _____ and ______?
rewards and punishment
76
What are the 4 key processes of Aker's social learning theory?
1. Differential reinforcement
2. imitation
3. definitions,
4. social context
77
differential reinforcement (social learning theory)
Deviant behaviors are reinforced when they are rewarded or when punishments are avoided
78
Imitation (social learning theory)
People learn deviant behaviors by observing others, particularly role models or peers.
79
Definitions (social learning theory)
Beliefs and attitudes about deviance influence whether an individual engages in it.
80
social context (social learning theory)
Social environments influence whether deviant behaviors are positively or negatively reinforced.
81
Strengths and weaknesses of social learning theory?
Strengths:
o Explains reinforcement and imitation processes.
o Accounts for a wider range of deviant behaviors, from individual to group crimes.
Weaknesses:
o Overemphasis on reinforcement, neglecting systemic factors like poverty and discrimination.
o It’s too broad: it attempts to explain all deviance without much specificity
o Neglectful of individual predispositions or mental health issues that may contribute to deviant behaviour
82
comparison of differential association and social learning theory?
* Differential Association: Focuses on learning via social interaction and definitions.
* Social Learning Theory: Incorporates reinforcement, imitation, and broader learning mechanisms.
Complementary Strengths
* Differential Association explains the source of deviance, while Social Learning Theory explains how it is reinforced and sustained
83
Differential association and social learning theory are _____ and are therefore ____ in their approach. They focus on the _____ _____ of learning.
subjective, micro, individual experience
84
What type of approach is labelling theory?
Symbolic interactionist approach
85
Unlike the other theories we have discussed in this course, labeling theorists believe that ______ _______ leads to deviance.
social control
86
______ _______ to an individual will produce deviance
Societal reaction
87
Labelling is a _____ that involves _____, _______, and the _______ of deviance
process, meaning, interpretation, attribution
88
According to labelling theory, deviance is a _____ ______; a _____ ______ (aka there is nothing inherently deviant)
human creation; a social construction
89
for other theories, deviance > control, for labelling theory, ____ > _____
control > deviance
90
Charles Horton Cooley
The looking glass self
91
George Herbert Mead
- The Social Self
- The "I" and "Me"
- Four stages of socialization
92
Frank Tannenbaum
The dramatization of evil
93
Howard Becker
Outsiders
94
Edwin Lemert
Primary and Secondary Deviation
95
what is the foundation of labelling theory?
Symbolic Interactionism
96
The Looking Glass Self
Cooley
1. How individuals imagine they appear to others
2. How they believe others judge them based on their behaviour/appearance
3. How they develop feelings of shame or pride based on these reactions of others
97
The Social Self
Mead
Our social SELF is developed through the interaction between the “I” and the “Me”
This is based on the notion that we are able to see ourselves as both a SUBJECT AND OBJECT.
98
The "I" and "Me"
Mead
When we INITIATE social action – the Self operates as a SUBJECT (“I”)
When we TAKE THE ROLE OF THE OTHER – The Self operates as an OBJECT (“Me”)
99
Four stages of socialization
Mead
1. Pretend
2. Imitation
3. Game
4. Generalized Other
100
The dramatization of evil
Tannenbaum
A community cannot deal with people it cannot define
Labeling creates “KINDS OF PEOPLE” which we then
expect to behave in the manner IMPUTED to them.
101
Outsiders
Becker
“Social groups create deviance by making rules whose infraction constitutes deviance.
Deviance is not a quality of an act, but a consequence of the application by others of rules and sanctions to an offender”.
Key terms: Moral Entrepreneurs and Master Status
102
Primary and Secondary Deviation
Lemert
Primary deviation: having been accused of committing a deviant "act” (or it has gone unnoticed), but not internalizing or accepting a deviant label or identity
Secondary deviation: coming to think of oneself as deviant. This occurs after societal reaction and labeling.
103
What is meant by the term "the amplification of deviance?"
- Labeling can lead to secondary deviance in 3 general and overlapping ways…
1. By altering an individual’s self concept
2. By limiting conforming opportunities
3. By encouraging involvement in a deviant subculture
Action>societal reaction>self-identity
- Can have the effect of reinforcing deviance because one has no choice.
SOCIAL CONTROL > DEVIANCE
104
_____ ______ are those who are formally charged with imputing deviance (labeling or diagnosing)
imputational specialists
- agents of formal social control
105
primary vs subordinate status
Primary Status: an attribute either real or imagined that becomes the principle defining status of an individual
Subordinate Status: other traits that become eclipsed by the primary status
106
“That which is defined as real, is real in its consequences”
W.I. Thomas
- labelling can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy
107
strengths of labelling theory
1. Focus on Social Power:
Highlights how powerful groups define deviance
2. Humanizing Deviance:
Shifts focus from the act itself to the societal reaction
3. Explains Escalation of Deviance:
Secondary deviance offers a clear framework for understanding cycles of criminal behavior.
108
Weaknesses of Labelling Theory
1. Overemphasis on Reaction:
Ignores initial causes of primary deviance.
Example: Does not explain why some individuals commit deviant acts before being labeled.
2. Lack of Attention to Agency:
Fails to consider individuals who resist labels.
Example: People who overcome stigmas like addiction or incarceration
3. Structural Criticism:
Neglects systemic issues like poverty, racism, and inequality that influence deviance (again: I think it’s unfair to criticize labeling theory for not being a macro theory when it was never designed to be).
109
Modern relevance of labelling theory
Criminal Justice Reform:
Policies aimed at reducing stigmatization, such as expunging juvenile records
Mental Health Advocacy:
Campaigns to reduce stigma associated with mental illness labels
Digital Footprints:
Awareness of how digital labels (e.g., online accusations) shape long-term identities and opportunities.
110
Labeling someone deviant and treating that person as if they are “generally rather than specifically deviant produces a self fulfilling prophecy. It sets in motion several mechanisms which conspire to shape the person in the image people have of [them]”
Howard Becker
111
labelling and ____ are linked
Shaming
112
_____ argues that we are doing the wrong kind of shaming in Western crime control
Braitwaithe
113
We engage in ____________ shaming practices when both victims and perpetrators benefit more from _____________ shaming.
Disintegrative, Reintegrative
114
The Stigma of Excellence
Judith Posner
Being exceptional is a “mixed blessing”
Being exceptional or “too good” is marginalizing
Those who are exceptional or “too good” pay a high price
They are subject to more rigidly proscribed behavioural patterns of decorum (e.g. the Queen—always “on”)
They may feel the need to apologize for their difference from others
115
Labelling women deviant
Edwin Schur
North American women are trapped by the dominant evaluation of male role characteristics as “good” but inappropriate (deviant) when attained by women.
When “male” is the norm, women are deviant for the very fact they’re not men.
116
7 characteristics that Interaction Theories share
1. Concern for how meaning is constructed
2. Pay little attention to acts that are NOT defined by others as being deviant and acts that fail to become part of one’s permanent identity as a deviant.
3. Focus more on organized deviance that may become part of the deviant’s social role or identity
4. Deal with the social construction of deviance, their application and the consequences in a sequential manner
5. Deal with stigma
6. A tendency to engage in “under dog” sociology
7. Supportive of the deviants they study
117
off shoots of labeling theory
Ethnomethodology and the Dramaturgical Model
118
Ethnomethodology
Harold Garfinkel
the study that examines the norms that preceed social interaction. (where symbolic interactionism focuses on the norms created while IN social interaction)
Ethnomethodologist, Howard Garfinkle, suggested using BREACHING EXPERIMENTS to study pre-exisiting norms, which he called ‘member methods’ *QUESTION ON THIS.
119
What did Garfinkel suggest using to study pre-existing norms, which he called ____ _____
Breaching Experiments, Member Methods
120
Dramaturgical Model
This is Erving Goffman’s work that examined social life as a PERFORMANCE.
- “All the world’s a stage and we are its players”
- Front stage / back stage
- we are all imposters
- questioned the notion of an authentic self.
121
the origins of Marxist Conflict Theory are rooted in the works of _____ and ______
Marx and Engels
122
what does social control theory assume?
that we are all capable of deviance, and whether we engage in deviant behaviour depends on the effectiveness of CONTROLS to deter non-conforming conduct.
123
There is strong focus on ________ and ________ to hold people to conventional behavioiur. (social control theory)
socialization and supervision
(recall: this theory has a bias towards stay at home mothers and the traditional nuclear family)
124
social control theory is _____ in its approach to research
objective
125
deviance occurs when social bonds become _____ or ______ (social control theory)
weak or broken
126
Social Bond Theory
Travis Hirschi
127
What 4 main types of bonds did Herschi emphasized held people to conventional behaviour when they are strongly intact?
1. Attachment
2. commitment
3. involvement
4. belief
128
Why aren't you a criminal? (Herschi)
you have a stake in conformity
129
Attachment (social bond theory)
family, friends, community
130
commitment (social bond theory)
future, career, success, personal goals
131
belief (social bond theory)
honesty, morality, fairness, patriotism, responsibility
132
involvement (social bond theory)
school activities, sports teams, community organizations, religious groups, social clubs
133
Who is the originator of social control theory?
F. Ivan Nye
134
Nye argues that both ____ and _____ forces work together to encourage conformity and discourage deviant behaviour.
Internal and External
135
what are the differences between internal, direct, and indirect controls, according to Nye?
Internal controls: based on your conscious. Self-policing your own behaviour
direct: external restrictions, imposed by others (teachers, parents)
Indirect controls: arise from relationships with others. Conform to preserve relationships.
136
According to social control theory, when does deviance occur?
when the socialization process fails to instill strong internal controls, when external controls are ineffective, or when bonds with significant others are weak or absent.
137
Most individuals have both _____ for deviance and ______ ____ ___. The balance between these forces determines behaviour
motivations, controls against it
138
Nye's key contributions
1. A focus on the family
2. Integration of controls (internal, direct, and indirect controls interact)
3. A solid foundation for later control theories
139
Routine Activities Perspective
Cohen and Felson (1979)
140
Routine activities perspective was developed to explain ecological patterns of victimization in urban areas, and it is considered a powerful explanation of the phenomenon of _______ _________
repeated victimization
141
The probability of crime increases when there is a convergence in time and space of 3 distinct elements.
1. A motivated offender
2. a suitable target
3. an absence of capable guardianship
142
what is one shortcoming discussed of the routine activities perspective?
It implies that victims are somewhat responsible for their fate.
143
Low Self Control Theory
Hirschi and Gottfredson
- general theory of crime
- crime is a result of low or no self control
144
What is the focus of low self control theory?
Inner Controls (self control) – the individual’s capacity to defer gratification and control impulses.
145
what is low self control characterized by?
impulsivity, risk-taking, and a focus on immediate gratification
Poor parenting, inconsistent discipline, and a lack of supervision and affection leads to low self-control, which remains stable throughout life. .
146
why are individuals with low self control more likely to engage in deviant behaviour or criminal behaviour?
because they prioritize short term rewards over long term consequences
147
According to Sutherland, actual deviant behaviour depends on ?
the presence of opportunities
For instance, someone with low self-control might steal if an opportunity arises, but may conform if the opportunity is absent.
148
6 main assumptions of low self control theory?
1) Crime is assumed to provide immediate gratification
2) Criminal acts provide easy paths to gratification
3) Criminal acts are exciting, thrilling, risky
4) Crime provides few long term benefits
5) Most crimes require little planning and skill
6) Crime often results in discomfort or pain for the victim.
149
Herschi and Gottfredson argue what about their theory?
that their theory explains all types of deviance and crime (hence referring it to as a ‘general theory of crime’).
150
Unlike other theories that emphasize external social structures, ____ _____ _____ theory places primary importance on ____ ______ _____?
low self control, internal self controls
151
strengths and weaknesses of low self control theory
strengths
- focus on social bonds
- practical applications
- simplicity and generality
weaknesses
- overemphasis on the individual
- stability of self control
- overemphasis on conformity
- cultural variation
152
Marxist conflict theory is based on the work of?
Marx and Engels
153
what is the focus of marxist conflict theory?
the concept of CLASS STRUGGLE via the capitalist system.
154
what is the fundamental premise of marxist conflict theory?
Deviance is deeply intertwined with societal power structures.
155
what does marxist conflict theory emphasize?
that laws and norms are often instruments used by dominant groups to maintain their interests and control over marginalized populations.
156
Dominant Group
refers to the group who holds the most power and authority and thus, they are the rules makers.
157
All forms of deviance are by-products of the capitalist system and are therefore _________ and _________.
systematic and structural
158
3 fundamentals of marxist conflict theory
1. Rules are made by the powerful (dominant group)
2. Rules preserve the preferred way of life for the powerful
3. People break rules out of need and/or oppression
These theories are macro and/or global and focus is on formal social control.
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7 propositions of marxist conflict theory
1. Power is the most important explanatory variable
a. Some people have more power/more power over other people. Use it to maintain their status/social structure.
2. Groups with clashing interests, values and unequal resources compete – producing winners and losers
a. Capitalism creates winners and losers
b. Do not benefit society as a whole
3. Groups struggle to have their own definitions of right and wrong established as part of the status quo
a. when we do this, definitions serve to constrain their competitors, and they attempt to make those who don’t win (those who don’t have their own definitions) deviant.
b. They get to decide what is normal.
c. Dominant group has the power to deviantize minority group.
4. Definitions of crime & regulations are weapons in the struggle between groups for a share in the power system.
a. Others rules are marginalized, and the winners’ rules get enforced
5. Deviance is neither normal nor inevitable
a. People break rules because there is something wrong with how society is structured. It is the exact opposite of functionalism to say this.
6. The source of deviance does not reside in the body or mind – but rather in the unequal relationships between people
7. Critical theories are involved in a long term process of building grassroots resistance to transform existing structures & ideologies of domination and inequality
a. Persistent forms of capitalism
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Marxist Conflict Theories emphasize the need for _____ in conjunction with social science research.
Praxis
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Praxis
to combine the knowledge gained by social science research with activism. This means research is both academic and political.
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Praxiological social scientists should be studying the _____ nature of society and expose its structures of domination and lift what is called the veil of _____ __________
real, FALSE CONSCIOUSNESS
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FALSE CONSCIOUSNESS
- People base their decisions on a false reality
- They think they are making decisions in their own best interest when in fact they are not…
- …because the oppressive system is so overshadowing that people don’t realize they are living in it.
- The job for the researcher is to expose systems that only serve the powerful and empower people who have been oppressed by them.
At the heart of Conflict Theories and is embedded in (or influenced) all of the theories that fall under a Marxist umbrella.
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what is embedded in Marx's theory of Alienation
FALSE CONSCIOUSNESS
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perception of the individual
The individual is a product of the material conditions of existence
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Neo-Marxism is rooted in the work of?
theorists from the Frankfurt school in Germany.
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Neo-Marxist theorists were interested in?
examining why the revolution that Marx predicted did not come to fruition
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what did Neo-Marxists determine?
that Marx was correct about the internal contradictions of capitalism, but under estimated the extent to which false consciousness could be fostered and exploited.
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Antonio Gramsci
He was a Marxist, but believed that Marx’s theory needed to be expanded from just economic interests and include the repressive apparatus of the state.
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Who coined the term Hegemony
Antonia Gramsci
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What is Hegemony
the legitimate control by the dominant group of the masses through the use of ideas.
It becomes the ‘common sense’ of a society.
If you can control what people view as common sense, you don’t need to use violence.
Later theorists expanded the notion of hegemony to include many forms of hegemonic power (not just one powerful, class-based group)
- Gender – hegemonic maleness
- Race – hegemonic whiteness
- Sexuality – hegemonic straightness
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All Criminological theories of deviance influenced by a Marxist Conflict Perspective tend to agree on 3 things:
1. The divisions of class, ethnicity, race and gender shape the rules/laws that make deviance and crime
2. Repression by authorities is ineffective social control that perpetuates injustice
3. Purely positivistic, number crunching approaches to the study of crime and deviance are too limiting…
- A critical criminologist would say that the criminal justice system needs to be deconstructed to expose it as a system that serves the powerful, rather than providing justice.
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Hegemony emerges out of ____ and _____
power and dominance
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Crime and deviant behaviour are a normal response to what?
AN UNJUST SOCIETY.
CAPITALISM BREEDS CRIME.
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what did the Frankfurt school thinkers study?
The authoritarian personality and the false consciousness
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Why didn’t the revolution that Marx predicted come to fruition?
Marx was right about the serious internal contradictions of capitalism… what he underestimated was the extent to which false consciousness could be fostered and exploited.
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According to Differential Association Theory, when does deviance occur?
Deviance occurs when there are excess definitions favourable to violations of the law.
