test 2 Flashcards
(132 cards)
1
Q
accomodation
A
the mental process of modifying existing schemes and creating new ones in order to incorporate new objects, events, experiences, and information.
2
Q
developmental psychology
A
the study of how humans grow, develop, and change throughout the lifespan
3
Q
some dev. psychs try to argue the nature-nurture debate how?
A
think of each child as born with certain vulnerabilities, such as a difficult temperament or a genetic disorder along with certain protective factors, such as high IQ.
4
Q
one of the most important questions in dev. psych
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whether a child who is acting out is going through a “phase” or “stage” or not.
5
Q
how do changes in developmental variables occur?
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in stages
6
Q
longitudinal study
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a type of developmental study in which the same group of participants is followed and measured at different ages
7
Q
cross-sectional study
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a type of developmental study in which researchers compare groups of participants of different ages on various characteristics to determine age-related differences
8
Q
strongest evidence for developmental changes
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comes from research that includes both longitudinal and cross-sectional studies.
9
Q
at birth, what is the infant’s vision
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20/600
10
Q
what age does a child reach 20/20?
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age 2
11
Q
visual cliff
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an apparatus used to measure infants’ ability to perceive depth.
12
Q
what is well developed at birth?
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hearing
13
Q
neonates
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able to discriminate among and show preferences for certain odors and tastes
14
Q
habituation
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a decrease in response or attention to a stimulus as an infant becomes accustomed to it
15
Q
temperament
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a person’s behavioral style or characteristic way of responding to the environment
16
Q
what 3 scientists discovered 3 types of infant temperament
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• Alexander Thomas, Stella Chess, and Herbert Birch
17
Q
easy children
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have generally pleasant moods, are adaptable, approach new situations and people positively, and establish regular sleeping, eating, and elimination patterns
18
Q
difficult children
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have generally unpleasant moods, react negatively to new situations and people, are intense in their emotional reactions, and show irregularity of bodily functions.
19
Q
slow to warm up children
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tend to withdraw, are slow to adapt, and are prone to negative emotional states
20
Q
temperament involves several dimensions
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activity level, sociability, inhibition, negative emotionality, and effortful control
21
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• Research indicates that temperament is strongly influenced by
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heredity, but is also affected by • Environmental factors, such as parents’ child-rearing style
22
Q
attachment
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the emotional bond that develops between an infant and a caregiver.
23
Q
• Bowlby claimed that attachment serves
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as the adaptive function of protecting infants from dangers in the environment.
24
Q
separation anxiety
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the fear and distress shown by infants and toddlers when the parent leaves, occurring from 8 to 24 months and reaching a peak between 12 and 18 months
25
stranger anxiety
, a fear of strangers common in infants at about 6 or 7 months of age, which increases in intensity until about 12½ months and then declines.
26
secure infants
show distress on separation from mother and happiness when mother returns; use mother as safe base for exploration
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avoidant infants
do not show distress when mother leaves and are indifferent when mother returns
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resistant infants
may cling to mother before she leaves and show anger when mother returns; may push mother away; do not explore environment when mother is present; difficult to comfort when upset.
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disorganised/disoriented infants
may show distress when mother leaves and alternate between happiness, indifference, and anger when mother returns; often look away from mother or look at her with expressionless face.
30
organization
Piaget’s term for a mental process that uses specific experiences to make inferences that can be generalized to new experiences
31
scheme
is a generic plan of action, based on previous experiences, to be used in circumstances that are similar to those in which it was constructed.
32
assimilation
the mental process by which new objects, events, experiences, and information are incorporated into existing schemes.
33
equilibration
is the mental process that motivates humans to keep schemes in balance with the real environment.
34
accomodation
the mental process of modifying existing schemes and creating new ones in order to incorporate new objects, events, experiences, and information.
35
sensorimotor stage
Piaget’s first stage of cognitive development in which infants gain an understanding of their world through their senses and their motor activities; culminates with the development of object permanence and the beginning of representational thought.
36
object permanence
develops during this stage and is the realization that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight
37
preoperational stage
Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development which is characterized by the development and refinement of schemes for symbolic representation.
38
egocentrism
believe that everyone sees what they see, thinks as they think, and feels as they feel
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animistic thinking
the belief that inanimate objects are alive.
40
centration
a preoperational child’s tendency to focus on only one dimension of a stimulus.
41
concrete operations stage
is Piaget’s third stage of cognitive development during which a child acquires the concepts of reversibility and conservation and is able to attend to two or more dimensions of a stimulus at the same time.
42
reversibility
is the fact that when only the appearance of a substance has been changed, it can be returned to its original state.
43
conservation
the understanding that a given quantity of matter remains the same if it is rearranged or changed in its appearance, as long as nothing is added or taken away.
44
formal operations stage
is Piaget’s fourth and final stage of cognitive development which is characterized by the ability to apply logical thinking to abstract problems and hypothetical situations.
45
socialization
• Socialization is the process of learning socially acceptable behaviors, attitudes, and values. Families, peers, and information derived from entertainment and information media contribute to socialization.
46
authoritarian parenst
make arbitrary rules, expect unquestioned obedience from their children, punish misbehavior, and value obedience to authority.
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authoritative parents
set high but realistic and reasonable standards, enforce limits, and encourage open communication and independence
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permissive parents
make few rules or demands and usually do not enforce those that are made; they allow children to make their own decisions and control their own behavior
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neglecting parents
are permissive and are not involved in their children’s lives.
50
• The peer group serves as
socializing function by providing models of behavior, dress, and language. It is a continuing source of both reinforcement for appropriate behavior and punishme
51
context of development
is Bronfenbrenner’s term for the interrelated and layered settings (family, neighborhood, culture, etc.) in which a child grows up.
52
genetic determinsim
The idea that genes alone determine everything about us, including behavior.
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genotype
The genetic information you received from your parents
54
phenotype
The sum total of all the physical characteristics of an individual, including behavior.
55
gene expression
When a cell uses a gene to make a particular protein
56
How do cells control gene expression?
Segments of DNA that lie adjacent to genes can determine which genes will be expressed.
57
epigenetics
The study of factors that affect gene expression.
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what are examples of epigenetics?
environment and experience
59
schizophrenia
a mental disorder characterized by hallucinations, delusions, disordered thinking, and emotional withdrawal
60
twin studies
Twins have the same mother, develop in the same uterus, are born at nearly the same time, and usually grow up in the same environment.
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identical twins
A single embryo splits into two;
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monozygotic twins
the twins have exactly the same genes.
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non identical twins
Two different sperm fertilize two different eggs at the same time;
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dizygotic twins
same amount of genetic relationship as normal siblings
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concordant
if both twins have the same trait
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discordant
if one twin has a trait and the other does not
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a trait is more likely to be heritable
if it is influenced by one or more genes inherited from the parents
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heritability
a statistical estimate of what percentage of variation for a trait is caused by the various genotypes
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heritability estimates only tell us about
populations of people, not about a particular person.
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adoption studies
When twins are raised apart from each other.
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concordance rate for schizophrenia
higher in monozygotic twins raised apart than in dizygotic twins raised apart.
72
What environmental factors are important in schizophrenia?
exposure to stressors such as disease, malnutrition, and neglect increase the likelihood of developing the disease. also it is more common in cities due to more stressful of a life.
73
Most people develop symptoms of schizophrenia
in transition from adolescence to adulthood
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strongest evidence from role of stress
come from twin studies
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Many studies of identical twins discordant for schizophrenia indicate
that the twin who developed schizophrenia was subjected to greater stress, such as complications at birth
76
sensation
The process of detecting a stimulus from the environment; the conversion of physical energy into neural energy
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perception
Perception is the translation of the physical world into a pattern of neural activity that can be used by the brain to guide behavior
78
bottom-up processing
Processing based on incoming stimuli from the environment
| Also called data-based processing
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top-down processing
Processing based on the perceiver’s previous knowledge (cognitive factors)
Also called knowledge-based processing
80
sensory receptors
In all sensory systems, initial contact with the outside world occurs via sensory receptors. Each receptor is sensitive primarily to one type of physical energy.
81
stimunlus transduction
A conversion of the stimulus energy into a nerve impulse.
82
neural coding
The local neural signal evokes a discharge of nerve impulses that represent specific information about the quality of the stimulus.
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effect of environmental stimuli
triggers neural activity
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neural patterns
symbols for environmental events that occur in the physical world.
85
perception is....
is the interpretation of neural symbols
86
All sensory systems-not only human-rely on the same basic principles of
info processing
87
modality
Different forms of energy-mechanical, light, thermal- are transformed into different qualities of sensations
88
intensity
The intensity or amount of sensation depends on the strength of the stimulus.
89
duration
The “perceived” duration is both a function of the physical duration of a stimulus and stimulus intensity.
90
psychophysical approach
the stimulus-perception relationship
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physiological approach
the stimulus-physiology relationship / the physiology and perception relationship
92
psychophysics is now a branch of
of perception concerned with establishing quantitative relations between physical stimulation (e.g., light) and perceptual events
93
What is psychophysics according to Fechner?
Since sensations must arise from an interaction between the physical and psychological worlds, Fechner believed if he could quantify the sensations evoked by various stimuli, he would be able to develop equations that would tie the two worlds together.
94
psychophysics
are a set of procedures used to measure sensations that physical stimuli evoke in human observers.
95
absolute threshold
smallest amount of energy needed to detect a stimulus
96
difference threshold
smallest difference between two stimuli a person can detect. the change in stimulus intensity necessary for it to be perceived as different.
97
fechners law
larger changes in stimulus intensity are required for the same sensory effect at higher intensities
98
The formation of an image upon the retina depends upon several factors.
1. Reflected light is structured by objects in the environment
Light must be able to penetrate the eye.
The distribution of light (I.e., the retinal image) must be properly focused.
Patterns of light falling on the retina must preserve the spatial structure of the objects.
99
the optic disk
disk is where ganglion cell axons leave the retina.
100
rods count
100 million
101
cones count
7 millon
102
rods
```
Mostly in the periphery
More light sensitive
Detect light and dark
Insensitive to red
Take 20-30 minutes to fully adapt to darkness
```
103
cones
```
Mostly in the fovea
Less light sensitive
Detect colors
Have best detail vision
Adapt fully to darkness in 2-3 minutes
```
104
three types of cones
M cones, S cones, L cones
105
M cones
sensitive to green
106
S cones
sensitive to blue
107
L cones
sensitive to red
108
pitch
determind by frequency
109
loudness
determined by amplitude
110
timbre
Complexity of the sound (number of component waves involved in it)
111
oval window
where vibrations of the eardrum are passed to
112
ossicles
small bones that pass the vibration of the eardrum to the oval window
113
3 ossicles of the middle ear
malleus, incus, and stapes
114
organ of corti
generates neural responses to the vibrations of the inner ear. located on the basilar membrane, contains rows of hair cells under the arch of a tectorial membrane
115
Helmholtz
believed that each location on the basilar membrane was independent of any other region. , information about a particular frequency of an incoming sound wave was coded by which segment of the basilar membrane vibrated in response to the sound.
Maintains that different frequencies of vibration of the cochlea fluid disturb different regions of the basilar membrane.
116
neurogenisis
the divison of cells that becomes neurons
117
6 processes of development of the brain
1. proliferation (cell generation)
2. migration (scatter and form clumps of cells that will become brain regions)
3. differentiation (go where they will specialize, turn into the type of neuron they are supposed to be)
4. synaptogenesis (construction of neural circuits)
5. neural cell death
6. modification (modification by neural activity after birth)
118
plasticity
the ability of the brain to change in structure or function. young brains are much more plastic than adult brains. while recovery is more likely for a child, permanent brain damage is mrore likely for an adult
119
how do psychologists "read" a childs mind?
keeping track of their eye movements
120
habituation tecnique
a method of discerning individuals recognition of a stimulus by determining whether they show us evident of habituating to that stimulus
121
Piaget's view of how cognitive development unfolds
1. child is an active participant in adapting to the world
| 2. there are distinct stages of cog. dev that a child must go through to think like an adult
122
piagets view of hold a child grows into an adult
a childs mind is organzied differently than an adults, with its own special logic. as the child grows, it reorganzies its thought process in successive stages of complexity until it reasons like an adult
123
sensory receptor cells
specialized sensory cells that detect stimuli
124
sensory receptor organ
a clump of receptor cells, all detecting a particular kind of stimulus
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threshold
the weakest possible stimulus that still affects a sensory cell's firing
126
absolute threshold
the lowest intensity of a stimulus that can be detected half the time
127
photoreceptors
light sensitve receptors in the retina
128
gestalt principle of perception
1. rule of continuity - explains why we have an interuppted field of vision, despite our blind spots
2. rule of proximity - we haave a tendancy to percieve objects that are close to one another as part of a whole
3. rule of similarity - more figures resemble each other in color, texture, shape, and so on
4. rule of closure - perception fills in gaps, closing them off to percieve an object
5. rule of symmetry - we percieve symmetrical lines as being part of a single object
129
how does the cochlea work
1. vibrations from the stapes puushes on the oval window, sending vibrations into the fluid inside the cochlea
2. vibrating fluid causes the membranes to vibrate too
130
how do we use our ears to find where a sound is coming from
two ears help us do this. cues called binaral cues help us with 1. intensity differences : comparison of the intensities that reach the 2 ears and 2. sound shadows: the head absorbs a sounds lessening its intensity on the side oppositie the sound source
131
chemical processes of taste
1. taste buds
2. taste pore - chemicals in the mouth encounter the surface of taste receptor cells
3. taste receptor cells - stimulate axons in the base of the taste bud to send action potentials to the brain
4. tastant - a chemical that encounters the taste receptor cell and excites it
132
chemical processes of smell
1. olfactory receptor neurons detects odors and are embedded in a sheet of cells, olfactory epithelium, lined inside the nose.
2. molecules smlled are called odorants
3. as ordorants enter and land on the olfactory epithelium, they may bind to the receptor neuron
4. this binding may excite or inhibit firing of the receptor neuron
5. when the neurons fire, they send impulses along their axons which pass thru the tiny holes in the skill to stimulate the neurons in the olfactory bulb in the brain.
