Test #2 Flashcards
(44 cards)
1
Q
DNA structure
A
- long 🧵 molecule
- double helix (spiral staircase)
- every side piece is backbone made of phosphate groups alternating w/deoxyribose (sugar)
- ”👣” pairs of nitrogenous bases (A&T or G&C)
- most humans-46 DNA molecules=2 meters in length
- polymer of nucleotides
- 100 million+ base pairs long
Nitrogenous Bases: •cytosine (pyrimidine; single ring) •thymine (pyrimidine; single ring) •adenine (purine; double ring) •guanine (purine; double ring)
2
Q
What’s the function of DNA?
A
- to produce 👨👩👧 cells
* normal day to day stuff
3
Q
RNA structure
A
- 70-10,000 nitrogenous bases
- only 1 nucleotide chain; doesn’t use complementary base pairs
- ribose (sugar)
Nitrogenous Bases: •adenine •cytosine •guanine •uracil
4
Q
What’s the function of RNA?
A
•interpret DNA code & use instructions for protein synthesis
5
Q
Where does RNA work?
A
•mainly cytoplasm
6
Q
Which is disposable, RNA or DNA?
A
- RNA is
* DNA is not
7
Q
Nucleotides
A
3 parts:
•sugar
•phosphate
•single or double 💍 nitrogenous base
8
Q
How many nitrogenous bases does DNA have & what are they?
A
•4
- adenine
- guanine
- cytosine
- thymine
9
Q
How many nitrogenous bases does RNA have & what are they?
A
- mainly 4
- transfer RNA has 50+
- adenine
- guanine
- cytosine
- uracil
10
Q
Gene
A
•DNA segment that codes for RNA molecule production
11
Q
How is genetic code used?
A
- uses 4 nucleotides (A, T, C, G) to code amino acid sequences
- expressed in codons
12
Q
Codon
A
•3 base sequence in mRNA
13
Q
Base triplet
A
•3 DNA nucleotides that = 1 amino acid
14
Q
What’s the base pair rule?
A
- DNA
- we can predict 2nd strand based on 1st strand that’s given to us
- bases pair up so it can be predicted
15
Q
What’s the role of DNA polymerase?
A
- enzyme
- moves along DNA strands
- reads exposed bases
- acts like matchmaker (pairs up complementary free nucleotides)
16
Q
What is the flow of genetic information?
A
Study figures…
•4.1
•4.2
•4.8
17
Q
Peptide
A
•compound made of 2+ linked amino acids
18
Q
How do you synthesize a peptide of RNA when given a strand of DNA?
A
•pair up the nitrogenous bases
19
Q
Cell Cycle
A
•G1-1st gap phase
growth & normal metabolic roles
•S-synthesis phase
DNA replication
•G2-2nd gap phase
growth & prep for mitosis
•M-mitotic phase Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Cytokinesis
20
Q
Prophase
A
- chromosomes shorten/thicken
- coil into compact rods
- nuclear envelope disintegrates & releases chromosomes in cytosol
- centrioles sprout spindle fibers (long microtubules) that grow & push centrioles until each 💈 has a pair
- spindle fibers grow towards chromosomes & connect at kinetochore/each side of centromere
- spindle fibers tug chromosomes back/forth until they line up in middle
21
Q
Metaphase
A
- chromosomes on cell equator
* shaking a little; waiting for signal to split in 2 at centromere
22
Q
Anaphase
A
•enzyme activated to split 2 👭chromatids
23
Q
Telophase
A
- chromosomes go to cell 💈
- chromatin decondenses
- each 💈 gets new nuclear ✉️ w/new nucleoli in each nucleus
24
Q
Cytokinesis
A
•cytoplasm divides in 2 cells
25
Genes
•genetic instructions for protein synthesis
26
Alleles
* different forms of gene in same place in 2 homologous chromosomes
* dominant or recessive
27
Heredity
•genetic characteristics passed from 👨🏼 to 👶🏼
28
What are the 3 developmental/embryonic layers?
| What organs/🧻 does each layer give rise to?
ectoderm:
•epidermis
•nervous system
mesoderm:
•loosely organized cells
•turns into gelatinous 🧻 (mesenchyme)
endoderm:
•digestive & respiratory tract mucous membranes
29
What are the 4 primary tissue classes?
* epithelial
* connective
* nervous
* muscular
30
```
What are the...
•types
•forms
•locations
•functions
...of epithelial tissue?
```
Simple Epithelia:
•squamous-lung alveoli/kidney capsules/❤️/blood vessels/stomach membranes/intestines/; rapid diffusion/🚕/secretes lubricant
* cuboidal-liver/thyroid/mammary/salivary/other glands/kidney tubules/bronchioles; absorption/secretion/produce mucous
* columnar-stomach lining/intestines/gallbladder/uterus/kidney tubules; absorption/secretes mucous & more/moves 🥚 & embryo in uterine tube
* pseudostratified columnar-respiratory tract(👃🏼 to bronchi)/part of male urethra; secretes & propels mucous
Stratified Epithelia:
•keratinized squamous-epidermis/🤲🏼&🦶🏼; resists abrasion & penetration/delays 💦 loss
* nonkeratinized squamous-👅/oral mucosa/esophagus/anal canal/vagina; resists abrasion & penetration
* cuboidal-sweat gland ducts/🥚 producing vesicles/sperm producing ducts; sweat secretion/secrets ovarian hormones/produces sperm
* columnar-
* transitional-urinary tract/kidney parts/ureter/bladder/urethra parts; expand for urinary tract/protects tissues from osmotic urine damage
31
```
What are the...
•types
•forms
•locations
•functions
....of connective tissues?
```
Fibrous (fibroconnective):
Loose connective-most space is ground substance
•areolar-under most epithelia/surrounds 💉 vessels, nerves, esophagus, trachea/fascia between 💪🏼/mesenteries/visceral layers pericardium & pleura; binds epithelia deeper/passage for nerves & 💉vessels through tissues/provides immune defense arena/nutrient & 💩 removal for overlying epithelia through 💉 vessels
•reticular-lymph nodes/spleen/thymus/🦴marrow; supportive stroma
Dense connective-most space is fiber
•dense regular-tendons/ligaments; ligaments bind 🦴& resist stress/tendons bind muscle to 🦴& transfer 💪🏼tension to 🦴
•dense irregular-deeper skin/capsules around liver, kidney, spleen/fibrous sheath around cartilage & 🦴; withstands unpredictably applies stress; gives 🧻 durability
Adipose: subcutaneous fat below skin/breast/❤️ surface/mesenteries/surrounding organs like kidneys & eyes; energy storage/insulation/heat production/cushion/fills space/shapes body
Cartilage:
•hyaline-over ends of 🦴 @ joints/supportive 💍 & plates around trachea & bronchi/📦 around larynx/much of fetal 💀/end of rib to breastbone; eases joints/holds airways open/moves vocal cords/precursor of bone in fetal 💀
•elastic-👂🏼/epiglottis (flap in throat); flexible support
•fibro-anterior joint between 2 pelvic girdle halves/intervertebral 🥏/menisci (shock absorbing pads in knee joint)/where tendons insert on 🦴 near hyaline; resists compression/absorbs shock/transitional between dense connective & hyaline (@ some tendon/bone junctions)
Bone: hard connective tissue
•spongy-middle layer of 🦴 like sternum & cranial; calcified but looks 🧽
•compact-💀; physical support/leverage for 💪🏼/protects organs/reservoir of calcium & phosphorus
Blood: fluid connective tissue
•erythrocytes (RBCs)-most abundant; pink 🥏 w/thin/pale centers & no nuclei; transport oxygen & carbon dioxide
* leukocytes (WBCs)-defense; bigger than RBCs; usually violet nucleus
* platelets-cell pieces scattered in blood cells; involved in clotting; promote blood vessel growth/maintenance; minimize blood loss
32
Endocrine vs. Exocrine
| Combined w/section 6.3 cutaneous glands
Endocrine:
•no ducts or contact w/surface
Exocrine:
•maintain contact w/surface through ducts
33
What are the functions of skin?
* resist trauma & infection
* barrier (keeps water in/out, UV, chemicals)
* vitamin D synthesis
* sensation (nerve endings for hot/cold/texture/pressure/vibration/injury)
* thermoregulation
* nonverbal communication
34
Epidermis
Cells:
•stem-undifferentiated cells divide & give rise to keratinocytes; in stratum basale
•keratinocytes-majority; synthesize keratin; most visible epidermal cells
•melanocytes-make melanin (brown/black pigment); in stratum basale
•tactile-few; touch receptors; in stratum basale
•dendritic-immune cells; start in bone marrow go to epidermis/epithelia; in stratum spinosum & strstum granulosum
Layers: (stratum)
•basale(deepest)-single layer cuboidal-low columnar & keratinocytes in basement membrane; (melanocytes/tactile/stem)
•spinosum-layers of keratinocytes; generally thickest stratum; (keratinocytes/dendritic)
•granulosum-3-5 keratinocyte layers; generally in thick skin
•lucidum-thin zone above granulosum (so only in thick skin); keratinocytes densely packed w/eleidin; no nuclei/organelles
•corneum(top)-30 layers of keratinized cells
35
Dermis
* .2 mm(eyelids)-4 mm(🤲🏼&🦶🏼)
* mainly collagen w/elastic fibers, reticular fibers, fibroblasts, (other cells in fibrous connective tissue)
* supplies w/💉 vessels, cutaneous glands, nerve endings
* holds hair follicles & nail roots
36
Hypodermis
* beneath skin
* no distinct boundary between dermis & hypodermis
* more areolar & adipose
* pads body & binds skin to underlying tissues
* highly vascular
* absorbs drugs quickly
Ex: drugs infected here due to quick absorption
37
Skin color
Pigments:
•melanin-(made by melanocytes), collects in keratinocytes of basale & spinosum
•eumelanin-brownish black
•pheomelanin-reddish yellow
•different colors = same amount of melanocytes but different quantities of melanin
* hemoglobin-red pigment (blood vessels visible)
* carotene-yellow pigment (eating 🥚 yolks/yellow veggies)
* cyanosis-blueness to skin (oxygen deficiency; changes hemoglobin to blueish)
* erythema-abnormal redness(exercise, heat, sunburn, anger, embarrassment; dilated blood vessels w/increased blood flow)
* pallor-pale/ashen (emotional stress, low blood pressure, circulatory shock, cold temp, anemia; little blood flow so white dermal collagen is visible)
* albinism-white hair/skin (genetic lack of melanin)
* jaundice-yellow skin & whites of eyes (high levels of bilirubin in blood)
* hematoma-bruise (clotted blood mass)
38
What are the types of cutaneous glands & their functions?
* merocrine sweat-cool the body; produce water through sweating
* apocrine sweat-respond to stress/sexual stimulation; excrete milky sweat; secrete sex pheromones
* sebaceous-produce sebum oil; protects hair & skin from being dry & brittle
* ceruminous-keeps eardrum pliable, waterproofs war canal; produces cerumen (sebum & dead epidermal cels)
* mammary-produce milk
39
Genotype
•alleles a person has for particular trait
Homozygous alleles-2 identical alleles for trait
Heterozygous alleles-different alleles for that gene
40
Phenotype
* observable trait
| * expresses allele
41
What’s the flow of genetic info?
* DNA
* RNA
* protein
42
What do all connective tissues have in common?
* their cells take up less space than extracellular matrix
| * usually cels aren’t in direct contact (separates by matrix)
42
Skin Cancer
```
Basal cell carcinoma-
•most common
•least deadly (rarely metastasizes)
•can disfigure
•comes from stratum basale
•invades dermis
•lesion 1st is small/shiny bump, enlarges & forms central depression & beaded edge
```
Squamous cell carcinoma-
•arises from keratinocytes of stratum spinosum
•lesion-scalp/ears/lower lip/back of hand; raised/red/scaly; later concave ulcer
•lethal if ignored but easily treated if detected
```
Melanoma-
•most deadly
•rare?
•treated if caught quickly(metastasizes quickly)
•unresponsive to chemo
```
42
Burns
```
Caused by...
•fires
•kitchen spills
•hot water
•sunlight
•strong acids/bases
•radiation
•electrical shock
```
```
1st degree-
•epidermis
•red/slight edema/pain
•heals in days
•rarely scars
Ex: sunburns
```
```
2nd degree-
•epidermis/dermis
•red/tan/white/blistered/pain
•heals 2 weeks-months
•maybe scars
Ex: bad sunburns & scalds
```
3rd degree- (leading cause of accidental death)
•epidermis/dermis/often muscle/often bone
•often need skin grafts
