Test 3 Flashcards
What are the three ways a chromosome can be distinguished (besides synaptic structure)? Describe them
Size- (Chromosome #1 is the largest)
Staining- Each chromosome has characteristic banding patterns
Centromere location
Metacentric → located in exact middle
Telocentric → located at one end or the other
Acrocentric → located between middle and end long and short arm
Describe the two types of deletions
Breakage and Rejoining- A portion of the chromosome falls out and the chromosome incorrectly repairs itself without that piece
Crossing over between repetitive DNA- The chromosome twists around and one part improperly connects with another part, causing a loop to fall off
How can deletions be detected?
Smaller size, missing bands, changed centromere location, and synaptic structure (extra ‘deletion’ loop on one side)
What are the genetic consequences of a deletion?
Depends on genes in deleted region
How does an inversion happen?
A portion of the chromosome falls out and the chromosome incorrectly repairs itself by switching the portion around or a segment of DNA loops around and fuses in place
What are the two types of inversions? Describe them.
Pericentric inversion includes the centromere, Paracentric inversion does not include the centromere
What does an inversion result in?
Dicentric bridge (para) or other synaptic structure (peri) both produce
->
2 unbalanced gametes (inviable), 1 normal gamete, 1 inversion gamete
How can inversion be detected?
Partially inverted banding patterns, change in centromere location (if pericentric and asymmetric), synaptic structure
both pericentric and paracentric have inversion loops, only para has dicentric bridge
What are the genetic consequences of an inversion?
NO problems with dosage (same numbers of gene copies). Reduced fertility (due to CO in the inverted synapse, unbalanced gametes). The inversion is inherited by some progeny
How does a translocation occur?
Two chromosomes break apart and join their separate parts together, changing the order (not necessarily a duplication)
How can a translocation be detected?
Change in size, change in banding pattern (partially switched with other segment), change in centromere location, synaptic structures (T shaped thing)
Define Aneuploidy
Change in Chromosome number
Define Turner’s SYNDROME
How often does it occur?
XO (one X chromosome and no other sex chromosomes)
Phenotypically female with no Barr bodies
1/5000 female births or 1/10000 total births
All autosomal monosomic (2n-1) are lethal, Turner’s Syndrome is the only viable human monosomic
Define Klinefelter’s SYNDROME
Trisomic with extra X chromosome (XXY)
Phenotypically male with Barr bodies
Define Trisomy X
Trisomic with 3 X chromosomes (XXX) Phenotypically female with two Barr bodies
No symptoms, can only detect by karyotyping
XYY Genotype, or Jacob’s Syndrome
Trisomic with extra Y (XYY) Phenotypically male
No symptoms, can only detect by karyotyping
Trisomy 21 or Down’s Syndrome
High variable expressivity
Chromosome 21 is the smallest chromosome with the fewest genes, so it has the lowest probability of dosage effects.
Trisomy 13/18 or Patau/Edward’s Syndrome
Lifespan of only a few years
Remaining Trisomies (not 13/18/21)
Spontaneous abortion. All trisomies occur with equal frequency, prevalence is due to severity
How does Aneuploidy originate? (general)
The failure of the homolog or chromatid segregation during meiosis. ANAPHASE (Nondisjunction)
How does aneuploidy differ depending on when it occurs (Meiosis I or II)?
Occurs during Meiosis I → Produces n+1 and n-1 gametes (2 of each)
Occurs during Meiosis II → Mix of gametes (2 normal, one -1 one +1)
Define Polyploidy
Changes in numbers of chromosome sets
Origin of (fertile) polyploidy in plants Creation of an octoploid
Spindle failure in mitosis of one cell -> mosaic plant (4n and 2n) -> 2n pollen/egg selfing -> 4n zygote or tetraploid
Spindle failure in tetraploid → (8n and 4n) → 4n pollen/egg → 8n zygote or octoploid
When does spindle failure occur? (polyploidy)
During anaphase, when the kinetochore divides but no separation of chromatids occurs
What does the nuclear envelope do different in the creation of Polyploidy?
During telophase the nuclear envelope forms around a single chromosome cluster (rather than two, one on each end)
How is a sterile triploid created?
4n plant + 2n plant -> 3n zygote -> sterile 3n plant (cannot divide to make sperm or egg)
The abundance of triploids will depend on the relative frequencies of diploids and tetraploids
How is a hexaploid created?
Spindle failure in triploid -> 6n and 3n -> 3n pollen/egg -> 6n zygote or hexaploid
How are pentaploids and septaploids created?
Pentaploid: From hexaploid(3n) and tetraploid(2n) or diploid(n) and octoploid(4n)
Define Autopolyploidy
Extra sets of chromosomes from the same original species via somatic doubling
Define Allopolyploidy
Extra sets of chromosomes from different but related species
Describe how cross pollination between two 2n plants can produce a hybrid plant and a fertile derivative
Cross Pollination (between two 2n plants) → na + nb zygote → na + nb plant *Sterile due to issues pairing up in production of sperm/egg
na + nb plant → Spindle Failure (Somatic doubling) → → → 2na + 2nb plant
Species A + Species B → Sterile Cross-Hybrid (na + nb) → Fertile Derivative (2na + 2nb)
What three things are chromosomes made up of?
Chromatin, protein, and DNA
Describe Griffith’s experiment
S strain kills mouse, R strain does not, heat killed S strain does not.
R strain plus heat killed S strain does, and results in live S strain cells
Describe Avery, McLeod, and McCarty’s experiment
Destroyed either polysaccharides, lipids, RNA, protein, and DNA one at a time to see which one would result in the mouse living and no live S strain recovered
What are the two types of Nucleotides? Describe them.
Purines and Pyrimidines
Purines (Adenine and Guanine): Six membered ring connected to a five membered ring
Pyrimidines (Cytosine, Thymine, Uracil): Five membered ring
Describe the location (which carbon) of the significant parts of each nucleotide
Both have a deoxyribose sugar with a phosphate at the 5, an OH at the 3, H at the 2* (deoxy), and their nitrogenous base on at 1*
Describe Chargaff’s Rule
Molar ratio of Adenine to Thymine is 1:1
Molar ratio of Guanine to Cytosine is 1:1
Describe the structure of DNA. (units, stands, groves, appearance)
Nucleoside monophosphate units. Each strand is complementary and anti-parallel. Has major and minor grooves, forms a right-handed double helix
What holds the nitrogenous bases from one strand to those of another?
Hydrogen bonds
What holds the Nucleoside monophosphate units of one strand together?
Phosphodiester linkages
What does it mean when you say DNA replication is Semi-conservative
When one piece of DNA replicates, one strand on each of the two new pieces is new and one is from the old template strand
DNA REPLICATION
Where does initiation of DNA replication occur? (Pro v Euk)
Origin of replication (OriC)
Eukaryotes have multiple, Prokaryotes have one
DNA REPLICATION
What do Initiator Proteins do?
Separate the strands of DNA by breaking hydrogen bonds (can recognize major groove)
DNA REPLICATION
What does helicase do? (Initiation)
Initation- Loaded on DNA, not yet active
DNA REPLICATION
What does Primase do? Why?
Synthesizes primer.
DNA polymerase cannot create DNA from free nucleotides, it requires a template.
Primers are short sections of RNA that are complementary to the DNA template and antiparallel.
Primase creates primers on both strands of DNA.