Test 3 (Final) Flashcards
(114 cards)
1
Q
Transition From the Late Middle Ages
A
- Fragmented Feudal Society (Pre-12th c)
- Agricultural Economy
- Church Dominated thought
2
Q
Transition Toward Early Modern Era
A
- Centralization, national sentiment
- Urban, commercial-capitalists economy
- Growing thought of Culture
3
Q
The Italian Renaissance
A
- Beginning with the deaths of Petrarch (“Father of Humanism”) and Boccaccio
- Ending with the sack of Rome by Spanish imperial soldiers
- Civic Humanism (Civic reform + Humanism) - spread from Italy through Northern Europe
4
Q
Italian City-States
A
- Milan, Florence, Venice, Papal States, Naples (5 most important)
- Prosperous Urban centers of trade and commerce
- Left to Develop by endemic warfare between the popes and holy Roman emperors
- Many City-States hired Despots to keep order usually by mercenary armies obtained from Military Brokers called condottieri
- Art and Culture flourished Because of the profusion of Wealth
5
Q
Italian City-State Social Classes
A
- Old Rich
- New Rich
- Small Business Owners
- Workers
6
Q
Cosimo de Medici
A
- Banker and Statesmen in Florence
7
Q
Humanism
A
- The scholarly study of Greek and Latin classics and the ancient church fathers as an end in itself and as a guide to reforming society
8
Q
Advocated Liberal Arts Study
A
- Grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, politics, philosophy - that celebrated the dignity the humankind and prepared one for a life of virtuous actions
9
Q
Italian Humanists
A
- Medieval Scholastic governed by an evolving tradition created by summarizing/reconciling views of commentators on subjects studied
- ## Renaissance Humanists bypassed layers of interpretation to go directly to original sources
10
Q
Petrarch
A
- Father of Humanism
- Modeled his writing on the Roman literature of Cicero, Livy, Vergil, Horace
- Classical and Christian Values coexist in his works
11
Q
Revival of Greek Studies
A
- Education Reforms guided by ideas of useful education & becoming a well rounded person
12
Q
Florentine Academy
A
- ## A gathering of of influential Florentine humanists devoted to reviving Plato & the Neoplatonists
13
Q
Platonism
A
- Flattering view of human reason as a part of the ideal (eternal) world versus the real (perishable) world and human freedom
14
Q
High Renaissance Art
A
- Embraced Natural world and human emotion
- Characterized by rational order, symmetry, proportionality
- Enhanced by two new techniques
- Linear perspective & chiaroscuro(use of shading to enhance naturalness
15
Q
Leonardo da Vinci
A
- Painter, Adviser to kings, engineer, botanist, physiologist
- Created the last Supper and Mona Lisa
16
Q
Raphael
A
- Painter
- Painted “The school of Athens”
17
Q
Michelangelo
A
- Artist
- Sculpted “Pieta” and “David”
- Painted the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel
18
Q
Italy’s Political Decline
A
- Treaty of Lodi - peace ended in 1494
- First French Invasion by King Charles VIII stormed through Italy, invited by ruler of Milan, later driven back out
- Pope Alexander VI - corrupt member of Borgia family - his son (Cesare)
- Second French Invasion by King Louise XII who allied with Pope Alexander and took Milan and part of Naples
- Pope Julius II - “warrior pope” drove the French out of Italy again
- Third French Invasion by King Francis I that led to:
- Italian Political Decline
- Habsburg-Valois wars of the first half of the 16th century - All French Losses
- Medici Pope, Clement VII watched the army of Emperor Charles V sack Rome in 1527
19
Q
Niccolo Machiavelli (Italian Humanist)
A
- Convinced by the chaos of foreign invasions that Italian political unity and independence were ends that justified any means
- Concluded only a strongman could impose order on a divided/selfish people
- Wrote “The Prince”
- Recommended the temporary use of fraud and brutality to achieve Italian unity
- Hoped for a strong ruler to come from the Medici family to deliver Italy
20
Q
Medieval Monarchies
A
- Monarchies tended to be weak
- Vassals sought maximum independence from their lords
- Representative Assemblies (nobles, clergy, townsmen) moderated royal authority:
- English Parliament
- French Estates General
- The German Diet
- The Spanish Cortes
21
Q
Monarchies in Northern Europe
A
- After Hundred Years War and Great Papal Schism - nobility/clergy in decline, less able to block royal power of national monarchies
- Loyal townspeople who allied with and served kings broke the bonds of feudal society
- Powers of taxation, war-making, enforcement of the law - belonged to monarchs and their chosen agents
22
Q
Printing Press
A
- Johann Gutenberg invented printing with movable type in the German city of Mainz
- Cheap paper, economical books, broadened content, wider and international audiences
- More print propaganda - less credulous laity
23
Q
Erasmus
A
- Most famous norther humanist who gained fame as an educational and religious reformer
- Believed discipline study of classics/Bible was the best way to reform individuals/society
- Described his ideal “The philosophy of Christ” as a simple ethical piety in imitation of Christ
- Erasmus laid the egg that Luther hatched
24
Q
Martin Luther
A
- Enrolled at the University of Erfurt
- Completed B.A and MA degrees and began in the field of Legal Studies
- Struck down by lightning bolt he soon joined Augustinian monastery
- Ordained a Priest
- Earned Doctorate in Theology at the University of Wittenberg
- Appointed preacher in city church in Wittenberg and lived there his whole life
25
German Reformation to 1525
- Martin Luther's 95 thesis sparked the Reformation in Germany
- Luther protested claims that the purchase of indulgences remitted sins and released unrepentant sinners form time in purgatory
- Martin Luther believed Salvation came from faith alone - Not from divine mercy and good works
- Pope Leo X condemned Luther for Heresy and excommunicated him
26
Fredrick the Wise
- Luther's lord and protector - prevented harm from coming to Luther
- Most prominent of HRE's seven electors
27
Luther's 3 famous pamphlets
- "Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation" (urged princes to force reforms on church)
- "Babylonian Captivity" (2 sacraments not 7)
- "Freedom of a Christian" (Salvation by Faith alone)
28
Diet of Worms
- Where Luther had a trial however he refused to Recant an Charles V declared him a heretic/outlaw (Edict of Worms)
- Fredrick hid Luther in Wart burg castle
29
Diet of Speyer
- Charles V agreed that each German territory was free to or not to enforce Edict of Worms in exchange for helping him in wars against Turks and French
30
Protestant Reformation
- Religious movement that broke out first in the free imperial cities of Germany and Switzerland
- Catholic Church's demise in German lands offered political /economical opportunities
31
Schmaldkaldic League
- German protestant's defensive alliance to prepare for war with the catholic empire
32
Peasant Revolt (1524-1525)
- Leaders (some Lutheran) solicited Luther's help
- Initially Luther sympathized with the peasants
- Later Luther condemned peasants for their revolt
- 70,000-100,000 peasants died in crushed revolt
33
Reformation in Switzerland
- Switzerland - Loose confederacy of 13 cantons(states), either protestant, catholic or both
- Two Civil wars Protestant vs. Catholic Zwingli was killed in the second one
- Swiss Reformation later merged with Calvinism
34
Ulrich Zwingli
- Humanist educated leader of Swiss reformation centered in Zurich
- Zwingli's Reform Guideline: Whatever lacked literal support in scripture was to be neither believed or practiced
35
The Marburg Colloquy
- Landgrave Phillip of Hesse sought to unite Swiss and German protestants in a mutual defense pact
- Luther vs. Zwingli (bitter theological difference over the nature of Christ's presence in Eucharist)
- Splintered the protestant movement theologically and politically - formed separate defense leagues
36
Anabaptist (re-baptize)
- Rejection of infant baptism
- Insistence on only adult baptism - made by consenting adult
- Persecuted by Lutherans, Zwinglians and Catholics
- Re baptism became a capital offense
37
Conrad Grebel
- Ana baptism originated with him
- Performed first adult baptism
- Broke with Zwingli
38
Schleitheim Confession
- Adult baptism, pacifism, refusal to swear oaths, non participation in offices of secular government
39
Menno Simons
- Founder of the Mennonites
| - Non provocative separatist Ana baptism - became the historical form of Ana baptism surviving to present
40
John Calvin
- Born into well to do French family
- Best education at Parisian colleges (law degree)
- Conversion to Protestantism - said his "long stubborn heart" was "made teachable"
- His own struggle/experience became a model for reform
41
Calvinism
- Replaced Lutheranism in the second half of the 16th century as the dominant Protestant force in Europe
- Inspired/accompanied political resistance in France, the Netherlands and Scotland
- Strongly emphasized both divine
42
Reformation in Geneva
- City Council got legal/Political powers
- City voted/adopted reformation
- Calvin arrived fleeing persecution, persuaded to stay and assist French reformation
- Calvin exiled from Geneva (Reforms too fast)
43
Calvin's Geneva
- Pastored French exiles in Strasbourg and learned from reformer Martin Brucer
- Set up Genevan Church on Strasbourg model
- Consistory (regulatory court) - implanted the strictest moral discipline
- After 1555 Geneva became home to thousands of exiled protestants - refuges made up more than 1/3 population
44
Diet of Augsburg (1530)
- Assembly of Protestant & Catholic representatives called to address division in HRE by Charles V, who bluntly ordered Lutherans to revert to Catholicism
45
Augsburg Confession
- Moderate statement of Protestant beliefs spurned by Emperor Charles V
46
Peace of Passau
- Reinstated Protestant leaders, guaranteed Lutherans religious freedoms
47
Peace of Augsburg
- Cuius regio, eius religio (The ruler of the land would determine its religion)
48
English Reformation to 1553
- William Tyndale translated NT into English and it began to circulate in England in 1526
- Cardinal Thomas Wolsey and Sir Thomas More guided royal opposition to English Protestantism
- Henry VIII defended the 7 sacraments against Luther and received the title "Defender of the Faith" by Pope Leo X
49
Reformation Parliament
- Seven-Year session Parliament convened beginning in 1529 - passed a flood of legislation that put royal reins on the clergy
- Set a precedent for English government - to make fundamental religious change monarchs must consult with & work through parliament
50
English Reformation Legislation
- English Clergy (convocation) recognized Henry VIII as head of the church in England
- Published Grievances against Roman Church
- Submission of the clergy - Placed canon (church) law under royal control
- King = English subjects' highest court of appeal
51
Act of Supremacy
- Declared Henry VIII "Only Supreme head in Earth of the church of England
52
Six wives of Henry VIII
- Catherine of Aragon - marriage invalidated - Daughter = Mary I
- Anne Boleyn - beheaded for alleged treason and adultery - Daughter Elizabeth I
- Jane Seymour - died after child birth - Son = Edward VI
- Anne of Cleves - marriage annulled
- Catherine Howard - beheaded
- Catherine Parr - survived Henry
53
English Reformation Collateral Damage
- Cardinal Thomas Wolsey dismissed in disgrace
- Sir Thomas More executed for refusing to recognize the Act of Supremacy
- Thomas Cromwell executed for arranging sight unseen failed marriage to Anne of Cleves
- Thomas Cranmer promoted to Archbishop of Canterbury by Henry VIII, but burned for heresy by Henry's daughter, Mary I
54
Act of Uniformity
- Thomas Cranmer's Book of common prayer imposed on churches
55
Protestantism under Edward VI
- Henry VIII's "Six articles"/heresy laws diminished
| - German protestant leaders fled to England for refuge - Several stayed to assist the reformation
56
Second Act of Uniformity
- Revised BCP & new 42 - article confession of faith imposed
57
Society of Jesus (Jesuits)
- A new religious reform group that was the most instrumental in the counter-reformation's success
58
Ignatius of Loyola
- Spiritual Exercise - intensive course of interior religious development
59
Council of Trent
- Three sessions over 18 years to reform the Catholic Church, spanned reigns of 4 different popes, interrupted by war, plague, and politics
- Conducted under pope control
- Most important reforms concerned internal church discipline
- Not a single doctrinal concession was made to the protestants
60
Catholic Counter-Reformation
- Centralized episcopal (bishops) church system hierarchically set up from pope to parish priest - stressing obedience without question to the person at the top
61
Baroque (Catholic) art
- Presented life in grandiose three-dimensional display of raw energy
62
Baroque Architecture (reflected religious beliefs)
- Catholics: Baroque (sculptures,paintings, ornamentation)
| - Calvinists: Plain Church (without decoration)
63
National/International Conflicts
- These religious wars were internal national conflicts and external international conflicts
- Catholic Governments of France and Spain conspired/sent armies against Protestant Regimes in England and the Netherlands
64
Huguenots
- French Protestant
65
Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis
- Ended Habsburg-Valois wars (Spain/France)
- Marked the beginning of internal French conflict
- European balance of power shifted from France to Spain
66
Duke of Guise
- Massacred Protestant congregation at Vassy in Champagne = beginning of the French Wars of Religion
67
Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye
- Huguenots religious freedoms within their territories, right to fortify their cities
68
Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre
- Leader Coligny & 3000 Huguenots butchered in Paris
- Within three days 20,000 Huguenots killed across France
- In Protestant eyes, it became an international struggle for sheer survival against an advisory whose cruelty justified any means of resistance
69
Politique
- interests of the nation over personal religion
70
Protestant Henry of Navarre
- Becomes King Henry IV of France
71
The Edict of Nantes
- Religious settlement in France
- Recognized minority religious rights within what remained an officially Catholic country
- Religious truce granted to a million Huguenots (Freedom of public worship, Right of assembly, Admission to public offices/universities, Permission to maintain fortified towns)
72
Imperial Spain/Philip II
- Pillars of Spanish Power (New World Riches, Increased Population, Efficient Bureaucracy, Supremacy in the Mediterranean
-
73
Catholic and Protestant Extremists in England
- Radical Catholics - Wanted to replace Elizabeth I with Mary, Queens of Scots as England's queen
- Puritans - Purify English church of "popery" (Calvinist theology)
74
Congregationalists
- (more extreme Puritans) - wanted every congregation to be autonomous
75
Presbyterians
- (moderate Puritans) - wanted national church to have semi-autonomous congregations governed by representative presbyteries
76
Habsburg Ferdinand, Archduke of Styria
- Became King of Bohemia
- Became Holy Roman Emperor, Ferdinand II
- Revoked Bohemian Protestants' religious freedom
77
Holy Roman Empire (Germany)
- Central location (highway for merchants/traders)
- German princes turned to allies against emperor to preserve territorial rights & trade opportunities
- Protestants in the empire (after council of Trent) suspected an imperial and papal conspiracy to re-create a Catholic (pre-Reformation) Europe
78
Bohemian Protestant nobility
- Threw regents out palace window, which is called the "defenestration of Prague"
- Deposed Catholic Ferdinand II and declared Calvinist elector Palatine, Fredrick V their king
79
Bohemian Period
- Revolt of Protestant nobility against unpopular king escalated into an international war
- Spain, Bavaria, Saxony allied with Ferdinand II
- Ferdinand II's army routed troops of Fredrick V (Battle of White Mountain, 1620)
- Ferdinand II re-Catholicized Bohemia
- Catholic Maximilian of Bavaria & Lutheran John George I of Saxony - their politics/greed overshadowed religion extending the conflict
80
Danish period
- Lutheran king Christian IV of Denmark entered Germany (English/French/Dutch encouraged it)
- Catholic Maximillian of Bavaria humiliated Christian IV forcing him to retreat to Denmark
81
Ferdinand's Edict of Restitution
- Reaffirmed the illegality of Calvinism (unrealistic)
- Ordered the return of all church lands Lutherans had required since 1552 (unrealistic)
- Compliance would have required the return of 16 bishoprics, 28 cities/towns to Catholic allegiance
- Struck panic in Protestants and Habsburg opponents everywhere
82
Lutheran king Gustavus Adolphus II of Sweden
- Became new leader (Protestant forces) within HRE
- Opened Swedish period of war
- Was controlled by two bystanders: (1) French minister Cardinal Richelieu and (2) the Dutch
- Died during battle of Lutzen at the hands of Wallenstein's forces
83
Swedish Period
- Despite Wallenstein's contribution to imperial success, Ferdinand resented his independence and had him assassinated
84
Peace of Prague
- HRE Protestant states reached compromise with Ferdinand, but France and the Netherlands refused the agreement
85
Swedish - French Period (1635-48)
- France/Netherlands (supported Sweden) - Desired to maximize their investment in the war, and plunged the war into its most devastating phase
- French openly entered war
- French, Swedish, and Spanish soldiers looted length/breadth of Germany for 13 years
- Germans simply suffered, because they were too disunited to repulse the foreign armies
- By 1644 war had killed 1/3 of German population
86
Peace of Westphalia
- Ended all hostiles within the HRE
- Written in French (New diplomatic language, not Latin)
- Rescinded Ferdinand's Edict of Restitution
- Reasserted Peace of Augsburg (Land's ruler determines the religion)
- Gave Calvinists legal recognition in HRE
- Recognized as law (Independence of Swiss Confederacy and United Provinces of the Netherlands)
- Bavaria became an "elector" state
- Brandenburg-Prussia emerged as the most powerful northern German state
87
Parliamentary Monarchy
- Form of limited or constitutional monarchy set up in Britain after the Glorious Revolution of 1689 in which the monarch was subject to the law and ruled by the consent of parliament
88
Political Absolutism
- Model of political development embodied by France in the 17th c. The French monarchy was able to build a secure financial base that was not deeply dependent on the support of noble estates, diets, or assemblies, and so it achieved absolute rule
89
Two Models of European Political Development
1. Parliament Monarchy
| 2. Political Absolutism
90
James I
- Avoided Summoning Parliament
- Concluded a peace with Spain that was perceived as pro-Catholic sentiment
- Attempted unsuccessful
to relax penal laws against Catholics increased suspicions
- Hesitated to aid German Protestants at outbreak of the Thirty Years' War
- Failed to arrange son' marriage to Spanish princess
91
Charles I
- Distrusted by Parliament
- Bypassed parliament to gain funds
- Dissolved Parliament
- Made peace with France and Spain
- Ruled with funds generated by chief adviser
- Provoked war with Scotland
- Forced to reconvene Parliament
92
The Long Parliament
- Acted with widespread support and general unanimity
- Impeached and then executed Stafford/Laud
Divided over religion (Moderate Puritans (Presbyterians), Extreme Puritans (Independents) wanted to abolish bishops and book of common prayer, Conservatives - keep church of England the same
93
English Civil War (Beginning)
- October 1641 - Parliament denied request for funds for army to suppress Scottish rebellion
- January 1632 - Charles invaded Parliament - to arrest some opponents, but they escaped
- Charles I then left London to raise an army
- Militia Ordinance passed giving Parliament authority to raise an army of its own
- 1642-1646 Civil war - king's supporters (Cavaliers) vs Parliamentary opposition (Roundheads)
94
English Civil War (End)
- Two reasons for Parliament's victory: Alliance with Scotland and Reorganized Parliamentary army under Cromwell
- Charles I defeated militarily by June 1645
- Charles I after trial executed January 30, 1649
- Parliament then abolished the monarchy, the House of Lords, and the Anglican Church
95
Oliver Cromwell/Puritan Republic
- Oliver Cromwell dominated the new republic
- Cromwell's army conquered Scotland/Ireland
- Cromwell disbanded the House of Commons when it refused to fund his army
- Cromwell ruled as Lord Protector thereafter
- Cromwell's military dictatorship became hated
- After Cromwell's death in 1658 Monarchy/Anglican church restored y 1660
96
Charles II
- Restored the English monarchy
| - Favored religious toleration
97
Clarendon Code (ultra-loyalists)
- series of laws excluded non-Anglicans from political life
98
Popish Plot (Titus Oates LIED)
- Charles's Catholic wife had a plot with Jesuits and Irishmen to kill the king
99
The Glorious Revolution
- James II becomes king in England (1685) - like his father he sought ti imitate Louis XIV's absolutism
100
Queen Anne
- Last of the Stuarts to rule England (second Protestant daughter of James II) had no heir and died without issue
101
Fronde
- A series of rebellions against royal authority in France between 1649-1652
102
Parlements
- French regional courts dominated by hereditary nobility. The most important was the parlement of Paris, which claimed the right to register royal decrees before they could become law
103
Louis XIV
- Convinced by experience that heavy-handed policies endangered the throne
- Made the monarchy the most important political institution in France
- Assured nobles/other wealthy groups of their social standing/influence on local level
- Worked through the existing local, social and political institutions
104
Palace of Versailles
- Perfect example of how Louis XIV used the physical setting of his court to exert control
- A temple to royalty, designed to proclaim Louis XIV's unofficial title, "The Sun King" which emphasized his power and central position in French society
105
King by Divine Right
- The theory that monarchs are appointed by and answerable only to God
106
Louis's suppression of the Jansenist's
- Jansenism - a Roman Catholic religious movement adhearing to the teachings of St. Augustine that arose in the 1630's in opposition to the theology and political influence of the Jesuits
107
Louis's Revocation of the Edict of Nantes
- Protestants across Europe considered Louis a fanatic
| - 250,000+ left France, many highly skilled, some formed new communities abroad, some joined resistance
108
Louis's Early Wars
- Foreign Policy = secure France's borders
- neighboring states formed alliances against France
- France gained more territory
109
Louis's Later Wars
- Nine Years' War vs. the League of Augsburg - Holland's borders secured/expansion into Germany thwarted
- War of Spanish Succession - English bested French and became a Mediterranean power. French triumphed in Spain, made peace with England and with Holland and the Holy Roman Emperor
110
Central/Eastern Europe
- Three dynasties/monarchies Emerged in the second half of the 17th century:
1. Austria and the Habsburg Dynasty
2. Prussia and the Hohenzollern dynasty
3. Russia and the Romanov dynasty
111
Austria/Habsburg Dynasty
- The Austrian Habsburg Empire (1521-1772) - Included Austria, Bohemia, Hungary
- Leopold I - rules and resists Turks
- Joseph I
- Charles IV - Pragmatic Sanction: attempted to address the problem = lack of an Austrian Habsburg male heir
- Maria Theresa - Succeeds Austrian throne, but quickly loses Silesia
112
Prussia/Hohenzollerns Dynasty
- Frederick William - "Great Elector"
- Coerced tax revenue and developed an army
- Trade off with Junkers (German noble landlords)
- Fredrick I - Assumed new title "King of Prussia
- Frederick William I - Prussian army came to possess its state
- Fredrick II - The "Great" - Seized Silesia from Austrians
113
Russia/Romanov's Dynasty
- Romanov Dynasty ruled Russia
- Buyars controlled bureaucracy
- Strltsy threat to Tsars
- Peter - The "Great"- Established strong monarchy, powerful army/navy
- Great Northern War defeated Swedes
114
Poland
- Exception in central/eastern Europe because it did not aspire to political absolution
- Monarch (a foreigner not from Polish nobility) elected by distrusting/divided nobility
- Sejm (diet) - central legislative body (only one)
- liberum veto - unanimity required for any legislative action to pass
