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A&P 2 Test 1 > Test One > Flashcards

Test One Flashcards

1
Q

What are the functions of blood

A

Transport, Protection, Regulation

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2
Q

Define volume of blood

A

Varies with body size, changes in fluid and electrolyte concentration, and amount of adipose tissue

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3
Q

What are the two things in blood?

A

Formed elements and liquid portion

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4
Q

What falls under formed elements

A

Erthrocytes, leukocytes, thrombocytes

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5
Q

What falls under liquid portion

A

Plasma

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6
Q

Percentage of RBC is called

A

Hematocrit (HCT)

Packed cell volume (PCV)

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7
Q

What is the breakdown of formed elements

A

Platelets, red blood cells, white blood cells

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8
Q

What is the breakdown of white blood cells

A

Neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, monocytes, lymphocytes

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9
Q

What is the breakdown of plasma

A

Electrolytes, water, proteins, wastes, nutrients, gases

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10
Q

What is the breakdown of nutrients

A

Vitamins and hormones

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11
Q

What is the breakdown of gases

A

N2, O2, CO2

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12
Q

What is the breakdown of proteins

A

Albumins, globulins, fibrinogen

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13
Q

Viscosity

A

Resistance of a fluid to flow; thickness

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14
Q

Osmolarity

A

Total molarity of dissolved particles that cannot pass through the blood vessel wall

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15
Q

Hematopoiesis

A

Formation of blood cells

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16
Q

Blood cells originate in

A

Red bone marrow from hematopoietic stem cells

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17
Q

Hematopoietic growth factors cause what

A

Hematopoietic stem cells to differentiated

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18
Q

Lymphoid stem cells

A

Lymphocytes

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19
Q

Myeloid stem cells

A

RBC, other types of WBC & platelets

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20
Q

What do red blood cells NOT have

A

Nuclei & mitochondria

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21
Q

RBC is what

A

1/3 hemoglobin by volume (gives blood it’s color

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22
Q

What is the function of hemoglobin

A

Carry O2 & CO2 and buffers blood pH

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23
Q

Hemoglobin plus O2

A

Oxyhemoglobin (red)

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24
Q

Hemoglobin plus released O2

A

Deoxyhemoglobin (dark blue)

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25
What is the composition of hemoglobin
4 globing protein chains& 4 heme groups that transport 1 O2 molecule each
26
Red blood cell count
Number of RBCs in a cubic millimeter or microliter of blood
27
What is the purpose of red blood cell count
Diagnosis of diseases and evaluation of their progress and it changes reflect changes in bloods oxygen carrying capacity
28
Low blood O2 causes what
Kidneys and liver to release EPO and stimulates RBC production
29
Negative feedback mechanism for erythrocytes
High altitudes, loss of blood, and chronic lung disease
30
Hypoxemia
Oxygen deficiency in blood
31
Vitamin B12 and folic acid
DNA synthesis; growth & division of all cells
32
Iron
Hemoglobin synthesis
33
Anemia
Deficiency of RBCs or a reduction in amount of hemoglobin they contain
34
Leukocytes
Protect against disease and produces red bone marrow, under control of hormones
35
What are the 5 types of WBCs in 2 different categories
Granulocytes Neutrophils Eosinophils Basophils Agranulocytes Lymphocytes Monocytes
36
Granulocytes
Have granular cytoplasm
37
Agranulocytes
Do not have noticeable granules
38
Neutrophils
Most abundant, small and light purple granules. Lobed nucleus: 2-5 sections and first to arrive at infection site.
39
What is the function of neutrophils
Phagocytize bacteria, fungi & some viruses
40
Eosinophils
Coarse granules; stain deep red & bi-lobed nucleus
41
What is the function of eosinophils
Moderate allergic reactions and defend against parasite worm infestations
42
Basophils
Large granules; stain deep blue and granules can obscure nucleus
43
What is the function of basophils
Migrate to damaged tissue.
44
Releasing histamine is to what
Stimulate inflammation
45
Releasing heparin is to what
To stop blood from clotting
46
Monocytes
Largest of WBC & spherical, kidney-shaped, oval or lobed nuclei and leaves bloodstream to become macrophages
47
What is the function of monocytes
Phagocytize bacteria, dead cells, debris
48
Lymphocytes
Slightly larger than RBCs; smallest WBCs and large spherical nucleus surrounded by thin rim of cytoplasm
49
What is the function of lymphocytes
T cells & B cells are major types. T cells directly attack pathogens, tumor cells, and transplanted cells.
50
Diapedesis
Leave blood vessel & go to infection site/injury
51
Phagocytosis
Engulfing & digestion of pathogens (neutrophils & monocytes)
52
Inflammatory response
Reaction that restricts spread of infection; promoted by basophils, involves swelling & increased capillary permeability
53
Positive chemotaxis
Attraction of WBCs to an infection site, by chemicals released by damaged cells
54
White blood cell count
3,500-10,500/mm3 of blood
55
Leukocytosis
High WBC count; acute infection, vigorous exercise, great loss of body fluids, emotional disturbances
56
Leukopenia
Low WBC count; typhoid fever, flu, measles, mumps, chicken pox, AIDS, polio, anemia and poisoning
57
Differential WBC count
Lists percentages of types of leukocytes and percentages may change in particular.
58
What is the function of platelets
Vasoconstriction, platelet plug, release clotting factors, and internalize & destroy bacteria
59
Blood plasma
Clear, straw- colored, liquid portion of blood, 55% of blood volume, 92% water plus organic and inorganic chemicals
60
What is the function of plasma
Transports nutrients, gases, hormones, & vitamins. Helps regulate fluid & electrolyte balance & maintain pH
61
What are the 3 main types of plasma proteins
Albumins Globulins Fibrinogen
62
Albumin
Smallest (60%)
63
What synthesizes albumin
Liver
64
What is the function of albumin
Determinant of osmotic pressure-> control blood volume -> BP Transports solutes
65
Globulins
35%; alpha, beta, and gamma globulins
66
What is the synthesis of globulins
Liver: alpha and beta | Lymphatic tissue: gamma
67
What is the function of globulins
Alpha & beta: transport lipids & fat soluble vitamins Gamma: antibodies in immune system
68
What is the synthesis of fibrinogen
Liver
69
What is the function of fibrinogen
Blood coagulation
70
Most important blood gases
Oxygen & carbon dioxide
71
What falls under plasma nutrients
Amino acids, simple sugars, nucleotides and lipids
72
What are molecules that contain nitrogen, but are not proteins
Urea, Unix acid, amino acids, creatine, creatinine
73
What do hormones do
Target cells and organs
74
What are the functions of hormones
- regulate metabolic processes - control rates of chemical reactions - aid in transporting substances through membranes - regulate water & electrolyte balance - regulate BP
75
What roles do hormones play part in?
Reproduction Development Growth
76
Cascade effect
One effect on another and another
77
Glandular cells
Secrete hormones into bloodstream
78
Where is pituitary gland located
Hypophysis (bass of the brain) attaches to hypothalamus by pituitary stalk or infundibulum
79
Anterior lobe
Enclosed by connective & epithelial tissue & has 5 types of secretory cells that release a specific hormone
80
Posterior lobe
Does not synthesize hormones; part of nervous system 2 associates hormones & are stored in vesicles in neurosecretory cells
81
Anterior lobe consist of?
Glandular cells & is under hypothalamus control
82
Axon terminals of hypothalamic neurons released what
Chemicals called releasing hormones
83
Releasing hormones are directly carried in the blood vis what?
Capillary beds associated with the hypothalamus and anterior lobe
84
What is the posterior lobe part of
Nervous system
85
Posterior lobe axons of certain neurons whose cell bodies are in what?
Hypothalamus extend down into the posterior pituitary gland
86
Posterior lobe hormones are transported down what
Down axons to the posterior pituitary & are stored in vesicles near the ends of the axons
87
Posterior lobe impulses on the the axons trigger the release of what
Chemicals from their axon terminals, which then enter the bloodstream as posterior pituitary hormones
88
What are the stimulated hormones
- thyrotropin- releasing hormone - corticotropin- releasing - gonadotropin releasing - growth hormone releasing
89
Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH)
Promotes thyroid- stimulating hormone & prolactin
90
Corticotropin releasing hormone
Promotes adrenocotropin hormone
91
Gonadotropin releasing hormone
Promotes follicles stimulating hormone & luteinizing hormone
92
Growth releasing hormone
Promotes growth hormone
93
What are the inhibited hormones
Prolactin (PIH) & somatostatin
94
Prolactin- inhibiting hormone
Inhibits prolactin
95
Somatostatin
Inhibits growth hormone & thyroid stimulating hormone
96
What were the anterior pituitary hormones
- follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) - luteinizing hormone (LH) - thyroid- stimulating hormone (TSH) - adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) - prolactin (PRL) - growth hormone ( GH)
97
Follicle stimulating hormones
- ovaries growth of ovulation follicles& secretion of estrogen - testes- sperm production
98
Luteinizing hormone
Ovaries- ovulation Testes- testosterone secretion
99
Thyroid stimulating hormone
Thyroid gland Growth of thyroid; secretion of thyroid hormones
100
Adrenocorticotropic hormone
Adrenal cortex Growth of adrenal cortex , secretion of glucocorticoids
101
Prolactin
Mammary glands & milk synthesis
102
Growth hormone
Liver, bone, cartilage, muscle and fat Tissue growth- mitosis
103
Posterior pituitary hormones
Antidiuretic hormones (ADH) Oxytocin (OT)
104
Antidiuretic hormone
Kidney & water retention
105
Oxytocin
Uterus ; mammary glands & labor contractions (milk release) and other functions
106
Where is the thyroid gland
Below larynx ; both sides & anterior to trachea
107
What are the structures of thyroid gland?
2 large vascularized lines connected by a board isthmus; covered by a CT capsule & composed of thyroid follicles
108
Follicular cells
Lines the follicles ( simple cuboidal epithelial cells)
109
Extracfollicular/ paragollicular cells
Cells that lie outside of the follicle; colloid fills the cavities, which consists of thoyogloblin
110
What are the hormones produced by thyroid glands
Thyroxine (T4) Triiodothyonime (T3) Calcitonin
111
What is T4 & T3 synthesize & by what
Follicular cells
112
What is the function of T4 & T3?
Increases rate of energy release from carbohydrates Increases rate of protein synthesis Stimulates breakdown of lipids Accelerated growth Stimulates activity in the nervous system Determines how many calories the body must overcome
113
What is the source of control for T4 & T3
TSH from anterior pituitary gland. T3: 5x more potent than T4 & is more prevalent
114
Calcitonin is synthesized by what
Extrafollicular cells
115
What are the functions of calcitonin
Lower blood calcium & phosphate ion concentration - inhibits release of calcium & phosphate ions from bones (osteoclasts) - increases rate at which calcium & phosphates ions are deposited in bones ( osteoblasts) Increases excretion of calcium by kidneys
116
Calcitonin source of control
Elevated blood calcium ion concentration, digestive hormones
117
What is the location of parathyroid gland
Posterior surface of thyroid gland & superior & inferior & on both sides of thyroid
118
What is the structure of parathyroid gland?
Small yellow-brown sturctures Covered by CT Composed of secretory cells
119
What falls under parathyroid hormone
Bones, kidneys, intestines
120
Parathyroid hormone bones
Stimulates bone resorption by osteoclasts & inhibits osteoblasts
121
Parathyroid hormone kidney
Cause kidneys to conserve blood calcium ions & to excrete more phosphate ions in urine
122
Parathyroid hormone intestines
Indirectly stimulates absorption of calcium ions from flood in the intestine by influencing metabolism of vitamin D
123
Parathyroid hormone
Increases blood calcium ion concentration & decreases blood phosphate ion concentration through actions in the bones, kidneys, & intestines.
124
Homeostasis
Trying to maintain calcium ion concentration Calcitonin & PTH are antagonistic
125
What is location of adrenal gland
Close association with kidneys Sits atop of kidneys Embedded in adipose tissue
126
What is the structure of adrenal gland
Pyramid shaped and vascularized
127
What are the 2 parts of adrenal gland
Adrenal medulla & adrenal cortex
128
What are the layers of adrenal glands
Adrenal medulla (inner core) Adrenal cortex (outer layer)
129
Chromaffin cells
Grouped around blood vessels & connected with sympathetic division of automatic nervous system
130
What are the 3 layers of adrenal cortex?
Outer (zona glomerulosa) Middle (zona fasciculata) Inner (zona reticularis)
131
What are the effects of hormones of the adrenal medulla
1. Increase heart rate 2. Increases force of cardiac muscle contraction 3. Increased breathing rate 4. Increased BP 5. Decreased digestive activity
132
What are the hormones of the adrenal cortex
Aldosterone (zona glomerulosa) Cortisol (zona fasciculata) Adrenal androgens (zona reticularis)
133
What is the action & target of aldosterone
Helps regulate the concentration of extra cellular electrolytes by conserving sodium ions (retaining water) & excreting potassium ions Kidneys
134
What does aldosterone regulate
Electrolyte concentrations in body fluids & blood pressure & volume
135
What is the action & target of cortisol
Decreases protein synthesis, increases fatty acid release, & stimulates glucose synthesis from non carbohydrates (when blood glucose levels are low) Any tissues
136
What is the regulations of cortisol
CRH from the hypothalamus & ACTH from the anterior pituitary gland
137
What is the action & target of adrenal androgens?
Supplement sex hormones from the gonads; may be converted into estrogens Many tissues
138
What is the location of pancreas
Posterior to stomach
139
What is the structure of the pancreas
Pancreatic duct attaches to the duodenum transporting digestive juices into the intestine (exocrine function)
140
What falls under pancreatic islets
Alpha cells (glucagon) Beta cells (insulin) Delta cells (somatostatin)
141
What is the function of glucagon : alpha cells?
Stimulates liver to break down glycogen into glucose (glycolysis) & to convert non-carbohydrates into glucose (gluconegenesis) Stimulates breakdown of fats into fatty acids & glycerol
142
In glucagon low blood glucose concentration stimulates release of what?
Decreases blood glucose concentration; stimulates liver to form glycogen from glucose & inhibits conversion of non-carbohyduinto glucose. Stimulates adipose cells to synthesize & store fat
143
Somatostatin? Delta cells?
Helps regulate glucose metabolism by inhibiting secretion of glucagon & insulin
144
What does pineal gland secrete?
Melatonin
145
What is the function of pineal gland?
Part of regulating circadian rhythms- patterns of repeated activity associated with cycles of night & day
146
What is pineal gland controlled by?
Light & dark patterns outside the body
147
What is thymus secreted by
Thymosins
148
What is thymus function
Affect production & differentiation of white blood cells; immunity
149
Gonads
Reproductive system
150
What are the 3 chemical class
Steroid hormones Monoamines Peptide hormones
151
Define steroid hormones
Derived from cholesterol & synthesized in gonads & adrenal cortex
152
Define monoamines
Synthesized from amino acids
153
Define peptide hormones
3 or more amino acids
154
Define neural stimuli
Gland stimulated by nerve fibers
155
Define hormonal stimuli
Hormones stimulate other glands
156
Define humoral stimuli
Blood-borne stimuli
157
Hormone secretion
Not secreted at steady rates & levels vary
158
Hormone transport
Arrive at target cell via blood stream
159
Hydrophilic hormones
Monoamines & peptides
160
Hydrophobic hormone
Steroids & thyroid hormone
161
Bound hormone
Attached
162
Unbound hormone
Unattached
163
Hormones can only act as what
Target cells
164
Receptors location
Plasma membrane Cytoplasm Nucleus
165
Specificity
Receptor to one hormone
166
Saturation
All receptors are bound by a hormone
167
Define steroid hormone
Poorly soluble in water & double in hydrophobic portion of cell membranes; diffuse easily through
168
Define thyroid hormones
Also poorly soluble in water & specific membrane transport mechanisms
169
Once inside a target cell it does what
Steroid & thyroid hormones combine with specific protein receptors to form a hormone-receptor complex
170
Hormone receptor complex binds
To particular DNA sequences
171
What is the hormone that triggers this first step is considered
First messenger
172
Define second messengers
Amplify the cellular responses to a hormone & can be activated in response to just a few hormone receptor complexes
173
Up- regulation
A cell increases the # of hormones receptors & more sensitive to hormone
174
Down regulation
A cell reduces the # of hormone receptors, less sensitive to hormone & long term exposure to high hormone concentration
175
Fluid recovery
Reabsorb & return leaked fluid to blood
176
Immunity
Fluid passes through lymph node
177
Lupus absorption
Lacteals absorb dietary lipids
178
Lymph
Fluid derived from the interstitial fluid that the lymphatic vessels carry
179
Interstitial fluid
Fluid that surround cells
180
Lymphatic capillaries description
Microscopic, closed ended tubes that extend into interstitial spaces
181
What is the location of lymphatic capillaries
Everywhere except bone, bone marrow, and corneas & close association with blood capillaries
182
Lymphatic vessels composed of 3 layers
Endothelial lining, smooth muscle and elastic fibers & CT
183
Internal valves
Prevent backflow
184
Lumbar trunk
Lower limbs
185
Intestinal trunk
Abdominal viscera
186
Intercostal & bronchomediastinal trunk
Thorax
187
Subclavian trunk
Upper limbs
188
Jugular trunk
Neck & head
189
Thoracic duct
Largest; originates as an enlarged sac in the abdomen & passes upward through diaphragm beside the aorta & empties into the left subclavian vein
190
Cisterns chlyi
Originates as an enlarged sac in the abdomen
191
Drains lymph
Intestinal, lumbar, intercostal, left subclavian, left jugular, left bronchomediastinal trunks
192
Right lymphatic duct
Originates in the right thorax at the union of the right jugular, subclavian and bronchomediastinal trunks
193
When does tissue fluid formation occurs when
Capillary blood pressure filters water and small molecules from the plasma
194
Lymph formation
Filtration normally exceeds reabsorption-> tissue fluid formation
195
What are 3 ways to help move lymph
1. Contracting skeletal muscles in limbs. 2. Contracting smooth muscle in lymphatic trunks 3. Pressure changes from skeletal muscle used in breathing
196
When would lymph flow peak? Why?
Valves in lymphatic vessels help prevent backflow and keep fluid moving onward
197
Lymph function
Absorption of dietary fats & returns small proteins back to bloodstream. Transport of foreign particles to lymph nodes
198
Lymphocytes
T lymphocytes (T cells) B lymphocytes (B cells)
199
Macrophages
Phagocytizing cells
200
Dendritic cells
Capture antigens & bring them back to lymph nodes
201
Reticular cells
Produce reticular fibers
202
Lymphoid tissue
House and provide a proliferation site for lymphocytes Furnishes an ideal surveillance vantage point for lymphocytes and macrophages
203
What is lymphoid tissue composed of
Reticular CT
204
Diffuse lymphoid tissue
Loose arrangement of lymphoid cells and reticular fibers
205
MALT
Mucosa Associated Lymphoid Tissue
206
What is diffused lymphoid tissue exposed to exterior
Digestive, respiratory, urinary, & reproductive
207
What is lymphoid nodules also called
Follicles
208
Lymphoid nodules
Solid, spherical bodies of tightly packed lymphoid cells and reticular fibers
209
What is the location of lymphoid nodules
Lymph nodes, tonsils, appendix, & ilium
210
Primary lymphoid organs
T & B lymphocytes go to mature
211
Red bone marrow
B cells
212
Thymus
T cells
213
Secondary lymphoid organs
Where mature lymphocytes first encounter antigens and are activated
214
Lymph nodes
Cluster along lymphatic vessels & are a large groupings near body surfaces in the i GUI also, ancillary and cervical regions
215
What are the 2 basic protective functions of the lymph nodes
1. Cleanse lymph | 2. Immune system activation
216
Cleanse lymph
Macrophages
217
Immune system activation
Lymphocytes encounter antigens & become activated
218
Trabeculae
CT from capsule extends inward & divides the node into compartments
219
What are the 2 distinct regions of the lymph node structure
Cortex & medulla
220
Cortex
Lymphoid nodules with germinal center
221
Medullla
Medullary cords (onward extension of cortical tissue)
222
Lymph sinuses
Lymphatic capillaries
223
Location of the thymus
Mediastinum, anterior to aortic arch, and posterior to upper part of the body of sternum
224
Location of spleen
Upper, left portion of the abdominal cavity
225
What does the spleen help do
Helps to filter blood
226
What are the 2 type of tissues in spleen
White pulp and red pulp
227
Hilum
Blood vessels & nevrous enter
228
White pulp
Lymphocytes & macrophages
229
Red pulp
Sinuses with erythrocytes
230
Pathogen
Disease causing agent
231
What are the 2 defense systems the body uses against infection
1. Innate defense | 2. Adaptive defense
232
Innate defense
No specific, local & lacks memory
233
Adaptive defense
Lines of defense
234
Innate defenses
``` Species resistance Mechanical barriers Inflammation Chemical barriers Natural killer cells Phagocytosis Fever ```
235
Helper T cell
Stimulate a type of B cell to produce antibodies
236
Cytotoxic T cell
Recognize and eliminate tumor cells and virus infected cells
237
Memory T cell
“Remember” antigen if subsequent exposure occurs
238
Cytokinesis
Polypeptide that enhances certain cellular responses to antigens
239
Perforins
Protein that cuts pore like openings in cells , destroying them
240
What are the T cell secretions
Cytokinesis & perforins
241
Plasma cells produce and secrete what
Antibodies
242
Antibody molecules
5 types of antibodies Y shape 4 amino acid or polypeptide chain
243
Variable region
Specialized to fit shape of a specific antigen molecule
244
Constant region
Not going to change; give antibody certain properties
245
What are the types of immunoglobulins
``` Ig G Ig A Ig M Ig D Ig E ```
246
What is the location of Ig G and what is it effective against
Location- plasma and tissue fluid Effective against- bacteria, viruses& toxins
247
What is the location of Ig A and what is it effective against
Location- exocrine gland secretions Effective against- bacteria & viruses
248
I hat is the location of Ig M and what is it effective against
Location - plasma Effective against- certain antigens in foods or bacteria
249
What is the location of Ig D
Location- surface of most B cells
250
What is the location of Ig E
Exocrine gland secretion
251
Antibody actions do what
Direct attack, complement activation , and localized changes
252
Agglutination
Antigens clump
253
Precipitation
Form insoluble substances
254
Neutralization
Antigen loses toxic properties
255
Opsonization
Antibody- antigen complex more susceptible to phagocytosis
256
Chemotaxis
Attracts macrophages & neutrophils
257
Primary immune response
Occurs when B and T cells become activated after first encountering antigens
258
Secondary immune response
Subsequent encounter of a previous antigen

A&P 2 Test 1 (1 decks)

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