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ECO3A: Individs, Popns, Commun > Testing Hypotheses In Behavioural Ecology (Sexual Segregation) > Flashcards

Testing Hypotheses In Behavioural Ecology (Sexual Segregation) Flashcards

1
Q

List the stages in which one can approach the study of behaviour? (4) [IN ORDER]

A

• Observations.
• Hypotheses.
• Predictions.
• Tests.

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2
Q

Main ways in which one’s idea can be tested? (3)

A

• Comparison between individuals within a species.
• Experiments.
• Comparison among species.

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3
Q

Comparison between individuals within a species attributes? (2)

A

• Observational.
• Difficult to deal with confounding variables.

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4
Q

How do we tackle confounding variables when Comparing between individuals within a species?

A

Choose two populations that are similar with similar environments.

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5
Q

Pros of Comparison between individuals within a species? (2)

A

• No manipulation.
• Less costly.

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6
Q

Con of Comparison between individuals within a species?

A

• Can’t control all potential confounding variables

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7
Q

Experiments/Experimentation attributes? (2)

A

• Allows isolation of factors for comparison.
• Not just lab work.

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8
Q

Pro of Experiments?

A

• Control confounding variables.

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9
Q

Cons of Experiments? (2)

A

• Risk manipulation of results.
• More costly.

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10
Q

Comparison among species attribute?

A

Looking at the results of a long-term experiment done by NS.

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11
Q

Pro of Comparison among species?

A

Less costly.

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12
Q

Con of Comparison among species?

A

Time-consuming.

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13
Q

Sexual segregation?

A

= when females & males within species tend to segregate outside of the breeding/mating season.

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14
Q

Types of sexual segregation? (2)

A

• Habitat segregation.
• Social segregation.

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15
Q

Hypotheses/explanations under Habitat segregation? (2)

A

• Predation-risk hypothesis.
• Foraging preference hypothesis.

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16
Q

Hypotheses/explanations under Social segregation? (3)

A

• Social preference hypothesis.
• Activity budget hypothesis.
• Aggression hypothesis.

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17
Q

Predation risk hypothesis?

A

= based on the risk of being predated on.

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18
Q

Predation risk hypothesis attributes? (2)

A

• Males seek high risk, high energy areas.
• Females seek safety first.

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19
Q

Why do males seek high risk, high energy areas in Predation risk hypothesis?

A

It’s because they have high energy requirements (B>C).

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20
Q

Why do females seek safety first in Predation risk hypothesis?

A

It’s because they are often with young & would even compromise quality food (B>C).

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21
Q

Predation risk hypothesis papers? (2)

A

• Kohlman et al, 1996.
• Mooring et al 2003.

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22
Q

Egs of Predation risk hypothesis? (2)

A

• Nubian ibex.
• Desert bighorn sheep.

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23
Q

Foraging preference hypothesis attributes? (3)

A

• Males need quantity.
• Females seek higher quality food.
• Quality vs Quantity.

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24
Q

Why do females seek higher quality food? (2)

A

• Smaller body size.
• Lower digestive efficiency.

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25
Q

Why do males seek high quantity food? (2)

A

• Large body size.
• Higher digestive efficiency.

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26
Q

Foraging preference hypothesis paper?

A

Smith et al, 2007.

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27
Q

Smith et al, 2007 summary? (2)

A

● Bulls are more widely scattered across Kruger looking for quantity vegetation.

● Females & young have higher nutritional requirements per unit body mass.

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28
Q

Eg of Forgaing preference hypothesis?

A

Elephants.

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29
Q

Kohlman et al, 1996 summary? (3)

A

● Speaks on the Predation risk hypothesis in Nubian ibexes.

● Females with young foraged in safer areas even though they comprised the quality of food they foraged.

● Females without young (young in nurseries) foraged small groups in high risk areas that enabled them to get high quality food.

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30
Q

Mooring et al, 2003 summary? (3)

A

● Speaks on Predation risk hypothesis in Desert bighorn sheep.

● Rams went to forage in places with more food (high energy, high risk areas).

● Ewes went to rugged terrain regardless of whether those areas had good quality food or not, safety was prioritized.

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31
Q

Activity budget hypothesis attributes? (3)

A

• Mixed sex groups could be costly.
• Sexually size-dimorphic ungulates.
• Unisex groups in which activity budgets can be optimised & not compromised.

32
Q

Activity budget hypothesis?

A

= based on males & females having different energy requirements.

33
Q

Why could mixed sex groups be costly in Activity budget hypothesis?

A

It’s because it implies that some individuals would have to compromise on preferred areas.

34
Q

Activity budget hypothesis paper?

A

Calhim et al 2006.

35
Q

Eg of Activity budget hypothesis?

A

Feral goats.

36
Q

Explain Activity budget hypothesis graph 1 (%Herd vs Time of day)? (2)

A

● Time spent in a particular (i.e., different individuals within the herd).

● F=foraging; L=lying; W=walking; S=standing.

37
Q

Social preference hypothesis attributes? (2)

A

• Same-sex preferences alone lead to social segregation.
• Males prefer to stay with males & females with females.

38
Q

Why do males prefer to stay with males & females with females in Social preference hypothesis?

A

It’s because of similar needs.

39
Q

Social preference hypothesis paper?

A

Michelena et al, 2004.

40
Q

Michelena et al, 2004 summary? (3)

A

● Speaks on social preference among Merino sheep.

● Found that sexual segregation was solely due to social preferences & not foraging activity budgets.

● Social preference due to male Merino sheep walking faster than females as they forage for shorter times than females.

41
Q

Eg of social preference hypothesis?

A

Merino sheep.

42
Q

Aggression hypothesis attributes? (2)

A

• Based on the fact that males tend to harass females.
• Females have to choose between predation-risk & male harrassment.

43
Q

Why would women choose predation-risk over male harrassment in Wild guppies experiment for Aggression hypothesis?

A

It’s because the benefits were higher than the costs.

44
Q

Aggression hypothesis paper?

A

Croft at al, 2006.

45
Q

Croft et al, 2006 summary? (3)

A

● Speaks on Aggression hypothesis in Wild guppies.

● Female guppies had to choose between predation & male harrassment, and chose predation.

● Why predation? Females are inconspicuous in the deep, dark depths of the sea due to their small body size and dull colours in comparison to males, making them less detectable & prone to predators.

46
Q

Eg of Aggression hypothesis?

A

Wild guppies.

47
Q

Hypotheses explaining sexual segregation? (5)

A

• Predation-risk hypothesis.
• Foraging preference hypothesis.
• Social preference hypothesis.
• Activity budget hypothesis.
• Aggression hypothesis.

48
Q

Comparison between individuals within a species paper?

A

• Calhim et al, 2006.

49
Q

Experiments paper?

A

• Michelena et al, 2004.

50
Q

Comparison among species paper?

A

• Mysterud, 2000.

51
Q

Mysterud et al, 2000 summary? (1)

A

● Speaks on Activity budget hypothesis in sexual-dimorphic large herbivores.

52
Q

3 methods of hypothesis testing?

A

• Comparison of individuals within a species.
• Experiments.
• Comparison among species.

53
Q

Confounding variable?

A

= an external variable that systematically affects one or more levels of the independent variable.

54
Q

Why compare among species?

A

To help us understand how differences in feeding or predation pressure (eg) influence the tendency to live in groups or to be solitary.

55
Q

Investigating adaptation using Comparison among species?

A

= involves linking the different behaviours of species with differences in their ecology.

56
Q

Egs of investigating adaptation using Comparative studies? (2)

A

• Comparison of breeding behaviour between Black-headed gulls & Kittiwake.
• Comparison between social organization in weaver birds.

57
Q

Limitations using comparative studies to investigate adaptation? (3)

A

• Alternative hypotheses.
• Cause & effect (consequence & not a cause).
• Differences between species may reflect different solutions to the same problem.

58
Q

Eg which has tried to overcome limitations of Comparative studies?

A

Primate ecology & behaviour.

59
Q

Black headed gulls vs Kittiwake in terms of Nest site?

A

● Black headed gull = on ground.
● Kittiwake = on ledge on steep cliffs.

60
Q

Black headed gulls vs Kittiwake in terms of Predation risk to nest?

A

● Black headed gull = high.
● Kittiwake = low.

61
Q

Black headed gulls vs Kittiwake in terms of Chick behaviour?

A

● Black headed gull = cryptic colouration & hides in vegetation.

● Kittiwake = not cryptic & ignores predators.

62
Q

Black headed gulls vs Kittiwake in terms of Adult response to predators?

A

● Black headed gull = alarm calls & attacks predator.

● Kittiwake = rarely alarm & weak attack.

63
Q

Black headed gulls vs Kittiwake in terms of Chick feeding?

A

● Black headed gull = food calls to attract hidden young.

● Kittiwake = no food calls.

64
Q

List differences between Black headed gulls & Kittiwake? (5)

A

• Nest site.
• Chick behaviour.
• Adult response to predators.
• Predation risk to nest.
• Chick feeding.

65
Q

Improvements to Comparative studies? (3)

A

• Measure data on a continuous scale (continuous variables).
• Consider alternative hypotheses.
• Use different genera instead of species.

66
Q

Investigating adaptation using Experimental studies?

A

= focuses on behaviour of individuals of the same species & analyzes it in terms of costs & benefits.

67
Q

Eg of using Experimental studies to investigate adaptation?

A

Egg shell removal in Black headed gulls.

68
Q

Limitation of Experimental studies to investigate adaptation?

A

Lack of quantitative predictions.

69
Q

Way to improve on limitation of Experimental studies?

A

Include both qualitative & quantitative predictions of costs and benefits (optimalilty model).

70
Q

Eg which has tried to overcome limitation of Experimental studies?

A

Crows & whelks.

71
Q

Explain Crows & whelks example?

A

Crows reduce their ascending flight to break whelks.

72
Q

Optimality model?

A

= model that is used to predict which trade-offs between costs & benefits give the maximum benefit.

73
Q

Once you have a research idea, what are the steps to take to investigate it?

A
74
Q

Once you formulate a research question, and you need to test a hypothesis, which 3 ways could you do it?

A

• Comparison between individuals within a species.
• Experiments.
• Comparison among species.

75
Q

What does sexual segregation measure?

A

The degree of separation between males & females outside o the breeding season.

76
Q

What hypotheses have been proposed to explain sexual segregation? Explain the mechanisms behind them.

A

ECO3A: Individs, Popns, Commun (10 decks)

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