The American West Flashcards
(277 cards)
1
Q
How religious were the Plains Indians?
A
The beliefs of the Plains Indians underpinned everything they did. Their belief in the unity of people and nature, and their profound conviction that humans should work with the power of nature and not try to tame it, influenced the ways in which they adapted to life on the plains.
2
Q
Sum up the beliefs of the Plains Indians.
A
They believed in the Great Spirit, who had created the world and ruled over it. They also believed that all living things had spirits of their own which made them holy and worthy of respect, and that even the rocks and streams had spirits. These spirits were very important, as they believed they could influence their lives.
3
Q
In what way were circles important to the Plains Indians?
A
They thought that they power of the earth always moved and worked in circles: the circle of the horizon, the circles of the sun and moon, the seasons, round bird nests, round tipis, and life was a circle, beginning with childhood and ending with the old behaving like children
4
Q
Why was mining or farming, especially on sacred land, such an issue for the Plains Indians?
A
Because it was sacred land where they took their dead for burial, and where their medicine men went for special guidance. The Plains Indians believed that they came from the earth. and when they died their bodies returned to the earth. In this way, all living thing were part of the land, and so land couldn’t be bought, owned or sold. They believed that the earth was their mother, and so mining/farming was cutting into their mother.
5
Q
How did the Plains Indians contact the spirit world and the one Great Spirit that flowed through the universe?
A
Through visions. Boys and girls were given their adult name in ceremonies where they had their first vision. Boys fasted and prayed for several days alone, then told their vision in the sweat lodge.
6
Q
How were dances important to the Plains Indians?
A
Whole tribes could contact the spirit world through elaborate and sometimes agonising ceremonies such as the Sun Dance and the Buffalo Dance. By torturing themselves they hoped to bring visions to themselves and their tribes.
7
Q
How important were the Plains Indians’ Medicine Men?
A
A Medicine man was important because he could interpret the visions of young men. He was important, too, because he could make contact with the spirits of all living things. Everything he did stemmed from this, and he was vital to the life of the tribe. He also looked after the tribe in practical ways, such as actual medicine.
8
Q
Why were the Plains Indians generally fit and healthy, and what were the most common health problems?
A
They were generally fit and healthy because they had very active lives, and the most common health problems were broken limbs and flesh wounds as a result of raiding and war, burns, bruises and grazes from buffalo hunting, fevers and rheumatism from being out in all weathers, and malnutrition when buffalo could not be found.
9
Q
Why did the Plains Indians believe that accidents and illness happened?
A
Because they’d been possessed by evil spirits
10
Q
How did the Plains Indians hunt the buffalo?
A
Before they had horses, they hunted them on foot, covered in animal skins to disguise their human smell. Sometimes they stampeded a buffalo herd so that the animals were trapped in a valley or tumbled over a cliff.
11
Q
What happened after a buffalo hunt for the Plains Indians?
A
When the hunters brought the dead buffalo back to camp, the women and children butchered the carcass. They cut out everything good to eat raw, such as the kidneys, liver and brain. The flesh was then boiled and roasted. Anything left over was sliced into thin strips and smoked or dried in the sun, becoming jerky, which kept for a long time.
12
Q
Describe the process of making ‘pemmican’.
A
The women pounded leftover meat into pulp, mixed it with berries and put it into skin containers. They then poured hot grease and marrow fat over the containers, which kept them airtight. Pemmican kept for a long time without going rancid.
13
Q
The Plains Indians used every part of the buffalo but one. What was this, what did they do with it, and why?
A
They didn’t use the buffalo’s heart, instead they cut it out and left it on the plains. They believed this gave new life to the herd which had given the Plains Indians so much.
14
Q
What was the hide of the buffalo used for by the Plains Indians?
A
The raw hide of the buffalo was used for carrying belongings, and for harnesses and shields. The tanned hide was used for robes, tipi covers, moccasins, bags and leggings.
15
Q
What was the tail of the buffalo used for by the Plains Indians?
A
Fly whisks and ornaments
16
Q
What were the sinews of the buffalo used for by the Plains Indians?
A
Bowstrings and thread
17
Q
What were the horns of the buffalo used for by the Plains Indians?
A
Head-dresses, spoons, powder flasks, cups, and arrow straighteners
18
Q
What was the skull of the buffalo used for by the Plains Indians?
A
It was painted and used in religious rituals
19
Q
What was the tongue of the buffalo used for by the Plains Indians?
A
A hair brush
20
Q
What was the fur of the buffalo used for by the Plains Indians?
A
Blankets, mittens and saddle covers
21
Q
What was the hair of the buffalo used for by the Plains Indians?
A
string and stuffing for pillows and saddles
22
Q
What were the bones of the buffalo used for by the Plains Indians?
A
knives, bone-fleshing tools and sledge runners
23
Q
What were the hooves of the buffalo used for by the Plains Indians?
A
glue and tools
24
Q
What was the fat of the buffalo used for by the Plains Indians?
A
soap
25
What was the dung of the buffalo used for by the Plains Indians?
fuel
26
What was the bladder of the buffalo used for by the Plains Indians?
food bags
27
What were the ribs of the buffalo used for by the Plains Indians?
sledges for children in winter
28
What were the tendons of the buffalo used for by the Plains Indians?
strings, cord and sewing thread
29
What were the intestines of the buffalo used for by the Plains Indians?
buckets, and cooking vessels
30
How did the Plains Indians get horses?
There were no horses in America until around the 1600s, when the Spanish conquered the tribes living in Central America, built towns and farmed and bred horses there. They refused to sell the horses, but in 1640, the Pueblo Indians rose up against the Spanish, drove them out and captured their horses. After keeping some for themselves for meat and breeding, they sold the rest to the other tribes.
31
How did the Plains Indians use horses?
At first, they just traded and sold them. Eventually they realised that they could use them to hunt the buffalo, for transport and for fun. Horses transformed and dominated every aspect of their lives. They were so essential to their way of life, by 1820 individuals measured their own wealth, and that of their tribe, in horses.
32
Describe the design of a tipi.
It was basically a framework of wooden poles with between 10-20 buffalo skins sewn and stretched over them. The flaps at the top of the tipi could be moved to direct the wind so that the smoke from the fire blew away. The conical design of the tipi meant that it was able to resist the strong winds that blew across the plains.
33
What did the male and female Plains Indians own?
Women owned everything in the tipi, and the tipi itself. The men owned the horses and their weapons. What no one owned was the land.
34
Why were tipis such ideal homes for the Plains Indians?
Because they needed to be on the move, following the vast herds of buffalo which were essential for their survival. The tipi could be taken down by the women in less than ten minutes, and two tipi poles attached to a horse formed a travois that carried the family's belongings over the Plains to their next camp.
35
What did the male and female Plains Indians do?
The men protected the band against enemies. Once the band was safe, the women were responsible for the tipi and all that that involved, such as feeding and clothing their families.
36
What happened to elderly Plains Indians?
They were left to starve
37
How was Indian society organised?
All the different bands in a tribe would usually meet together in the summer for a great tribal camp, when the grass was rich enough to feed their horses, and the Indians could kill all the buffalo they would need.
38
What's a warrior society?
Every man belonged to one, and each tribe had its own, with special dress, dances and songs. generally, their role was to protect women and children from attack and supervise the hunting, making sure that not too many buffalo were killed. The band council would always consult its warrior society before making a decision.
39
Why did the Plains Indians fight?
To young Indian boys, going into battle and winning glory there was the only way to earn respect. He could perhaps enter a warrior society, or even gain a wife. By taking horses and weapons, and capturing women and children, Plains Indians could become wealthy. Their chiefs used warfare as a way of testing their power, and of trying to increase their standing in their tribe or band
40
Why did Plains Indians not go into war to conquer others or gain territory?
Because they didn't want to conquer others or gain land; they didn't believe that anyone could own land. Indian warfare was made up of short raids, made by small groups, in order to capture horses and weapons or for revenge or honour.
41
What was the Plains Indians' idea of bravery?
Facing up to responsibilities, i.e. being a good hunter and fighter without taking unnecessary risks that could jeapordise one's life or the wellbeing of the tribe as a whole.
42
What was counting coup?
It was touching the enemy with a hand, or a specially decorated stick. This was the greatest honour a warrior could win, especially if their enemy was still alive. The first man to touch an enemy in this way received the highest honour. There were lesser honours for those who were second, third of fourth.
43
Which two factors did a man's rank as a warrior depend upon?
His total 'score' in coups, and his ability to lead successful raids in which the Cheyenne losses were low.
44
Why was being scalped in battle one of the worst things that could happen to a Plains Indian?
Because if your enemy had your scalp, he had your spirit. They thought that if a warrior lost his scalp, he could not live beyond death, so to scalp your enemy meant that he would not be in heaven to fight you. When an Indian killed a person in battle, he scalped the person and took the scalp back to camp
45
Why did wars between tribes occur?
The Indians usually set out to steal horses from neighbouring tribes and bands. This could involve fighting and certainly involved counting coup. Indians also fought to protect their hunting grounds from tribes and bands that might have strayed there accidentally, or deliberately, in search of buffalo or antelope.
46
Why did many chiefs and elders welcome warfare against other tribes?
Because in war, they could exercise authority over younger braves, who were anxious to win honour or respect and could sometimes get out of control. Warfare was also a way to bring all the bands together so that men, women and children could develop a sense of tribal unity and acknowledge the power and control of the tribal chiefs.
47
Why do tipis show how well the Indians adapted to living on the plains?
Because they were warm in winter, cool in summer, and made from materials found on the plains. They would be taken down quickly and easily transported by horses. They could be made to house an extended family.
48
When did the banks collapse in the East?
1837
49
When was gold discovered in California?
1848
50
Who were the first white men to cross the Great Plains and the Rocky Mountains, and why did they do so?
Mountain men and trappers, who trapped beaver and hunted antelope and other animals for their fur. Big companies such as the American Fur Company built trading stations where their agents could buy fur and skins from the trappers and mountain men.
51
Why were trading trading stations where agents from companies such as the American Fur COmpany could buy fur and skins from the trappers and mountain men known as forts?
Because they could be defended against attack from hostile Indians.
52
What was the financial panic which lead to many people in the 1840s wondering if a better life could be found out in the West?
In 1837, the boom years of the early 1830s came to an end. Cotton prices fell, banks increased their interest rates on loans, and investors began to panic. many banks collapsed, people lost their savings, businesses failed, and thousands of people losing their jobs, which meant that in some areas, unemployment was as low as 25%. People still with jobs faced wage cuts of as much as 40%
53
What was the Farming Crisis in the mid-West?
Farmers in the Mississippi valley couldn't make a profit from selling their wheat because the price of it had collapsed. Many of them faced ruin.
54
What is the definition of Manifest Destiny?
In the 19th century, Manifest Destiny was a widely held belief in the United States that American settlers were destined to expand throughout the continent. Journalist John O'Sullivan coined the term Manifest destiny when he wrote "And that claim is by the right of our manifest destiny to overspread and to possess the whole of the continent which Providence has given us for the development of the great experiment of liberty and federated self-government entrusted to us."
55
By 1848, the USA had won the whole of the continent of America from the Atlantic to the Pacific coasts and from the Canadian to the Mexican borders. What was their solution to the worry about how to hold on to the aforementioned land?
To fill the land with young men and women that were loyal to the USA
56
When did the first wagons arrive in Oregon?
After two unsuccessful attempts to get over the Sierra Nevada in 1841 and 1842, the first wagons arrived in Oregon in 1843.
57
What did the Americans first do to get across the plains to their destination?
1} Migrants crossed a fertile plain of tall prairie grass to the Platte River
58
After migrants crossed a fertile plain of tall prairie grass to the Platte River [1], what did the Americans next do to get across the plains to their destination?
2} They followed the wide, muddy Platte river into Nebraska where the grass was shorter.
59
After they followed the wide, muddy Platte river into Nebraska where the grass was shorter [2], what did the Americans next do to get across the plains to their destination?
3} They faced (on the plains) sandstorms, quicksands, rain, hunger, stampeding buffalo and sometimes hostile Indians. They stopped Fort and then at Fort Laramie to rest people and animals, and take on supplies
60
After they faced (on the plains) sandstorms, quicksands, rain, hunger, stampeding buffalo and sometimes hostile Indians (they stopped Fort and then at Fort Laramie to rest people and animals, and take on supplies) [3], what did the Americans next do to get across the plains to their destination?
4} They climbed into the foothills of the Rockies through Indian territory, where friendly Sioux sometimes traded and acted as guides.
61
After they climbed into the foothills of the Rockies through Indian territory, where friendly Sioux sometimes traded and acted as guides [4], what did the Americans next do to get across the plains to their destination?
5} They climbed even higher in order to get through South Pass. Dried and stored meat was eaten because there'd be no more buffalo
62
After they climbed even higher in order to get through South Pass, where dried and stored meat was eaten because there'd be no more buffalo [5], what did the Americans next do to get across the plains to their destination?
6} They split into two groups at Fort Hall, depending on whether they were aiming for Oregon or California, and took more supplies on board (they were about halfway along the trail by then)
63
After they split into two groups at Fort Hall, depending on whether they were aiming for Oregon or California, and took more supplies on board (they were about halfway along the trail by then) [6], what did the Americans next do to get across the plains to their destination?
7} They hauled their wagons, using chains, ropes and pulleys, over the Blue Mountains (richer migrants paid Indians to ferry them and their wagons across the Dallas River. The poor abandoned their wagons and crossed as foot passengers. They walked the rest of the trail to Oregon)
64
After they hauled their wagons, using chains, ropes and pulleys, over the Blue Mountains (richer migrants paid Indians to ferry them and their wagons across the Dallas River. The poor abandoned their wagons and crossed as foot passengers. They walked the rest of the trail to Oregon) [7], what did the Americans next do to get across the plains to their destination?
8} They crossed 80km of desert to the Sierra Nevada where they used chains, ropes and pulleys to haul their wagons up and over the mountains and then down into the fertile Sacramento valley.
65
How long was the route to California in terms of both distance and time?
It was 3,800 km long, and took from April to November (or even December)
66
According to Official estimates, how many people died on the westward trails between 1840 and 1860?
34000
67
How did people make sure that they could continue the journey west?
Independence, Missouri, was important to the first migrants because they had their supplies checked there, and waited there for enough wagons to make up a sufficiently sized wagon train.
68
How many wagons were in most wagon trains?
At least 20
69
What happened to the Donner party?
-Some wanted to take a 'shortcut' proposed by Lance Hastings, most didn't. They split as such. The Donner brothers decided on the shortcut-The donners suffered badly in the desert, losing 4 wagons and 300 cattle. Due to a quarrel, one man killed another.-They reached the Sierra Nevada late and with little food.--The snows came early, and they found themselves trapped by said snow, on the wrong side of the Sierra Nevada. They decided to dig in for winter.-Conditions worsened. The first death from starvation came 15th December.-15 people (8m, 5f, 2 Indian guides) went to try get help. 4 men froze to death, and were roasted and eaten by their companions. The Indian guides refused to eat human, so were shot and then eaten.-10 January, remaining 9, after 32 days, reached Johnson's ranch and fetched help.-When the rest of the Donner party was reached by a rescue op, half were dead and those left survived by eating the dead.
70
What happened as a direct result of gold accidentally being discovered in California [1848]?
Within months, 40,000 men were reported to be crossing the Great Plains, and 60 ships carrying would-be gold miners left ports in America and Europe, including significant numbers of Mexican and Chinese people, bound for California. Many of the men were not miners at all.
71
By the end of 1848, how many were digging for gold in California?
around 10,000 men
72
By the end of 1849, how many were digging for gold in California?
Around 90,000 men, nicknamed the forty-niners
73
What happened to the would-be gold miners [The forty-niners]?
Most didn't find gold and wandered back home, or drifted from mine to mine. Some, however, did strike gold and became extremely rich indeed. Tales of these lucky few kept men motivated.
74
Why did mining towns come to be?
The early miners had to live somewhere.
75
What kind of living standards were there in mining towns?
They were often little more than groups of filthy shack beside a dust road. Dysentery, scurvy and typhoid were common, along with occasional outbreaks of cholera.
76
How did miners waste their money when not working?
At local saloons, where they could gamble and drink al day, and where some prostitutes charged as much as $400 per night
77
How did some mining towns become permanent after the mid-1850s, and why?
By then, the surface gold was almost exhausted, and the 'forty-niners' were departing, replaced by professional miners. As many of them had worked in tin and gold mines in Cornwall, they were able to sink and work deep mines. Backed by businessmen who put money into machinery and mills, gold mining became a profitable industry.
78
What was claim-jumping?
Stealing one man's claim to a mine after gold had been discovered there. It was the most common crime in the mining towns, and oft led to murder.
79
How was law and order kept, at first, in the mining towns?
The miners set up their own courts, which dispensed rough justice and were often corrupt
80
When the professional miners moved in with their families and the towns became permanent, how was law and order kept in the mining towns?
Town meetings chose a chairman and officers, and claims to mines had to be recorded. Sheriffs were appointed to arrest criminals, and a court of miners decided on guilt or innocence, and subsequent punishments. However, trials were quick and rarely fair. As, sometimes, the courts couldn't keep up with the level of lawlessness, this lead to vigilante justice.
81
Who were vigilantes?
Ordinary citizens who had set up vigilance committees, in which they took the law into their own hands. This did work well at first, in some cases, but before long, people began to fear the vigilantes themselves; it was far to easy to execute someone who got on the wrong side of an influential citizen.
82
Name three things which were a direct result of the discovery of gold in the West.
-An increase in the supply of money for, and encouraged investment in, the mining industry.-The rapid growth of San Fransisco-A railroad being built across America, going to California-The wealth created giving the USA a leading role in world trade.-The stimulation of movement west in the 1850s
83
What were the problems with the discovery of gold in the West?
#NAME?
84
Who was Joseph Smith?
The son of a poor farmer from Vermont who claimed that in 1823 he dug up some golden plates from a mountain in Palmyra, NY. He said he'd been guided by an angel, Moroni, who helped him translate the mysterious writing on them, which supposedly said that whomever found said plates would restore the church of Jesus Christ in America and build up God's kingdom on earth ready for Christ's second coming.
85
Joseph Smith started with only 5 followers, who were called Mormons, but by 1830, what had he achieved?
He had several hundred people joining his Church of Latter Day Saints
86
What happened to the Mormons in NY?
They became very unpopular; priests denounced them as blasphemous and newspaper accused Joseph Smith of fraud. Mobs attacked Smith's home, and Mormons were shot at in the street.
87
What was the Mormon practice which most made them unpopular?
polygamy
88
What did the Mormons do in Ohio 1831-37?
-bought land and built farms and homes in Kirtland.-Opened a store, temple, mill and printing press-Became prosperous-Outnumbered non-Mormons-Set up a bank that failed during the national banking crisis of 1837
89
How did people react to the Mormons being in Ohio 1831-37?
#NAME?
90
What did the Mormons do in Missouri 1837-38?
-Bought land and built farms and communities mainly in Caldwell country-Became prosperous-Were friendly with Plains Indians-Wanted to free slaves-Set up a secret police force [The Danites]
91
How did people react to the Mormons being in Missouri 1837-38?
#NAME?
92
What did the Mormons do in Illinois 1838-46?
-Rebuilt the decaying town of Commerce-Renamed Commerce 'Nauvoo' and made it a prosperous community-Practiced polygamy-Criticised Joseph Smith for 'being a dictator'-Chose Brigham Young as their leader-Joseph Smith announced his intention to run for election for President
93
How did people react to the Mormons being in Illinois 1838-46?
-Governor of Illinois granted Nauvoo a charter-Became afraid that they'd become outnumbered by Mormons-Mobs assaulted and killed Mormons.-Smith was imprisoned and killed by a mob.-Governor cancelled Nauvoo's charter-Governor told Mormons to leave Illinois-Brigham young organised emigration
94
What was Brigham Young's first job as leader?
He had to organise the move of 1,500 men, women and children into dangerous, unknown territory. He needed to make sure that they survived the unexpected journey, for which they were poorly prepared. They were travelling 2,250km, leaving US territory and heading for the Great Salt Lake, a harsh land in which nobody else wanted to settle.
95
What did Young do to move the Mormons to the Great Salt Lake?
#NAME?
96
Describe the first few months after the first Mormons arrived at the Great Salt Lake.
Many died from cold and hunger, and grasshoppers devoured the summer's crops. Water was a problem as the water in the Salt Lake was useless
97
How did Brigham Young turn the unpromising land at the Great Salt Lake into a flourishing state?
He had total control over his community, as the obeyed him without question. One of the first decisions he made was that nobody owned and land, water or timber. Instead, it would all be fairly allocated by the Mormon church. The streams supplying the lake weren't salty, and so the Mormons dug a main irrigation ditch from them through the farmland; side dicthes were dug so that all land could be irrigated. People were given exact times at which they could draw water from the main irrigation ditch.
98
How was land allocated in Salt Lake City and the surrounding area?
The Temple and the Temple square were in the centre of the city. Around the square, wide streets marked off blocks of land all the same size. These were each divided into eight pots for houses and gardens. Each family got a plot. Five acre plots were gven to the young artisans and mechanics who had little time to work on the land. Ten acre plots were given to those with small family, or to the elderly whose children had left home. Farms between ten and eighty acres went to larger families.
99
In Salt Lake City, who got five-acre plots?
Young artisans and mechanics who had little time to work on land.
100
In Salt Lake City, who got ten-acre plots?
Those with small families, or elderly couples whose children had left home
101
In Salt Lake City, who got farms between ten and eighty acres?
larger families
102
What was Brigham Young's plan after Salt Lake City was established?
That Mormons should spread throughout Utah. He had every part of the territory surveyed in order to find out where it would be possible to farm. Once an area was found to be suitable, a town was marked out and irrigation ditches dug, and settlers were chosen to make sure that there were a balance of skills, ages and occupations.
103
How did Brigham Young encourage emigration to Utah?
He set up a Perpetual Emigration fund to provide money for poor Mormons living elsewhere in America and in Europe to make the journey, bringing with them the range of skills needed. The response was tremendous, with 32,894 converts ready to leave England alone by the end of 1852. They were given a complete financial package to help them get to Utah, and they would repay the money once in Utah.
104
How was it that the Mormons could afford the Perpetual Emigration Fund?
Because of their self-sufficiency. Mormon territory had been set up in such a way that they needed to buy in very little in he way of goods or raw materials, meaning any surplus money could go into the fund.
105
What was the first step that Brigham Young took to become politically independent?
He applied to the US government for the Mormon lands around the Great Salt Lake to become a state called 'Deseret' in 1848. However, The US government allowed Mormon lands to only have territory status, and it had to be called Utah after the Ute Indians who lived there. It wasn't as large as they wanted, and had no port.
106
After he applied to the US government for the Mormon lands around the Great Salt Lake to become a state called 'Deseret' in 1848, a request which resulted in territory status, and the name 'Utah', what happened with Brigham Young's plan to achieve political independence?
The US government appointed Young as the first governor of the new state of Utah. But, though laws were made in Washington and not by the Mormons, Young started using the Danites to crush oppositions from non-Mormons.
107
After he applied to the US government for the Mormon lands around the Great Salt Lake to become a state called 'Deseret' in 1848, a request which resulted in territory status, and the name 'Utah', the US government appointed Young as the first governor of the new state of Utah. But, though laws were made in Washington and not by the Mormons, Young started using the Danites to crush oppositions from non-Mormons. What then happened with Brigham Young's plan to achieve political independence?
In 1857, the US government sent a non-Mormon governor to Utah long with 1,500 soldiers to enforce federal rule. However, a massacre of migrants led to the Mormons blaming the Indians and the non-Mormons blaming the Danites. Tension mounted until the US government suddenly decided to try reaching a peaceful settlement with the Mormons.
108
After he applied to the US government for the Mormon lands around the Great Salt Lake to become a state called 'Deseret' in 1848, a request which resulted in territory status, and the name 'Utah', the US government appointed Young as the first governor of the new state of Utah. But, though laws were made in Washington and not by the Mormons, Young started using the Danites to crush oppositions from non-Mormons. Then, in 1857, the US government sent a non-Mormon governor to Utah long with 1,500 soldiers to enforce federal rule. However, a massacre of migrants led to the Mormons blaming the Indians and the non-Mormons blaming the Danites. Tension mounted until the US government suddenly decided to try reaching a peaceful settlement with the Mormons. What then happened with Brigham Young's plan to achieve political independence?
The US government agreed to let the Mormons live their own lives in their own way without interference. However, Utah couldn't become a state until the Mormons agreed to ban polygamy. In return, the Mormons agreed to a non-Mormon governor, and banned polygamy in 1890.
109
What was the solution which the US government found in response to the following worries: Mexico would become strong enough to challenge the American hold on Texas and California, France regretting the sale of Louisiana, and Great Britain trying to alter the Canadian border?
To fill the 'empty' land with white Americans. These men and women, they argued, would build homesteads and towns, railways and roads, would farm, mine and trade, and would help to make the USA strong, prosperous and able to defy any enemies. They ignored the fact that the lands over which the wagon trains were moving were the hunting grounds of the Indians.
110
In the 1840s, there were four main areas which the American government wanted to see settled: Texas, California, Oregon and The Great Plains. Describe the state of Texas at the time.
To the south of the Great Plains, Texas had been part of the Mexican Republic until the 1830s. In the revolution of 1835-6, American settlers had won their independence. However, it wasn't until 1845 that Texas became a state in the USA/ Until then, it was the 'Lone Star Republic', with its own government.
111
In the 1840s, there were four main areas which the American government wanted to see settled: Texas, California, Oregon and The Great Plains. Describe the state of California at the time.
To the west of Texas and lying between the southern Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Ocean, California had belonged to Mexico until 1848. It was inhabited mainly by Indians, Mexican ranchers and American fur traders.
112
In the 1840s, there were four main areas which the American government wanted to see settled: Texas, California, Oregon and The Great Plains. Describe the state of Oregon at the time.
To the north of California and west of the Rocky Mountains, Oregon was bought from Great Britain by the USA in 1846. Indians, British and American fur traders and a few missionaries lived there.
113
In the 1840s, there were four main areas which the American government wanted to see settled: Texas, California, Oregon and The Great Plains. Describe the state of The Great Plains at the time.
Officially called 'The Great American Desert', The Great Plains were the hunting ground of the Plains Indians. Pioneers had crossed The Great Plains to reach Oregon and California, and the government were wondering whether these areas could then be farmed and settled.
114
In the 1840s, there were four main areas which the American government wanted to see settled: Texas, California, Oregon and The Great Plains. Describe the state of The Great Plains at the time.
Officially called 'The Great American Desert', The Great Plains were the hunting ground of the Plains Indians. Pioneers had crossed The Great Plains to reach Oregon and California, and the government were wondering whether these areas could then be farmed and settled.
115
In the 1840s, continuing to today, the USA was governed by a federal government. What is a federal republic?
The literal meaning of the word republic when used to reference a form of government means: "a state where sovereignty rests with the people or their representatives, rather than with a monarch or emperor; a country with no monarchy". Basically, the federal government made decisions for the whole country, such as whether or not to go to war. Individual states made decisions such as whether or not to have the death penalty or retain slavery. This system of government has continued to the present day.
116
What was the relevance of 'Public domain land' in helping settle people on the plains?
All land opened for settlement in the West was called 'public domain'. This meant that it belonged to no one and could, therefore, be settled by anyone or left empty. The US government decided to change this by trying to make sure that all land had an owner. The land was surveyed and divided into parcels of 9.6km�_ called townships. Each township was divided into sections of 640 acres and offered for sale at $1 per acre. This was far too expensive for ordinary settlers, and the speculators (people who bought land intending to sell it on at a higher price) moved in, buying up the land and selling it on at a high price to those who could afford to pay, which wasn't what the government intended.
117
When the government decided to start trying to make sure that all land had an owner, what went wrong?
As they divided each township into sections of 640 acres and offered them for sale at $1 per acre, this was far too expensive for ordinary settlers. The speculators (people who bought land intending to sell it on at a higher price) moved in, buying up the land and selling it on at a high price to those who could afford to pay.
118
What was the relevance of 'Public domain land' in helping settle people on the plains?
All land opened for settlement in the West was called 'public domain'. This meant that it belonged to no one and could, therefore, be settled by anyone or left empty. The US government decided to change this by trying to make sure that all land had an owner. The land was surveyed and divided into parcels of 9.6km�_ called townships. Each township was divided into sections of 640 acres and offered for sale at $1 per acre. This was far too expensive for ordinary settlers, and the speculators (people who bought land intending to sell it on at a higher price) moved in, buying up the land and selling it on at a high price to those who could afford to pay, which wasn't what the government intended.
119
What was the relevance of 'The Homestead Act of 1862' in helping settle people on the plains?
Desperate to stop land speculation and settle ordinary families on the Plains, the government passed the Homestead Act in 1862. This act enabled settlers to claim a quarter-section of land to live on and farm. This claim had to be entered in an official register, and after five years, the settler could pay just $30 and get a certificate of ownership. In other words, the land for settlement was virtually free. It was at this point that settlers started becoming known as 'homesteaders'
120
What was the relevance of 'The Timber and Culture Act of 1873' in helping settle people on the plains?
The government realised that 160 acres was not enough to support a homesteader family, and this Act allowed a homesteader to claim a further 160 acres if he promised to plant trees on half of it.
121
What was the relevance of 'The Desert Land Act of 1877' in helping settle people on the plains?
This gave settlers the right to buy 640 acres of land cheaply in areas where lack of rainfall was a more than usual problem.
122
What did the government do in order to encourage the newly formed railroad companies to expand across the Plains?
The government gave them township land parcels on either side of the tracks they were laying. Obviously, this wasn't the only incentive for the railroad companies, but it encouraged both railroad building and settlement
123
When had the Union Pacific Railroad Company and the Central Pacific Railroad Company completed the first railroad across the Great Plains?
In 1869
124
By when were there six companies which connected the Mississippi-Missouri rivers with the Pacific coast?
By 1893
125
In order to make the railroads pay, what did the six railroad companies connecting the Mississippi-Missouri rivers with the Pacific coast have to do?
Between them, the owned about 155 million acres of land, and to make the railroads pay, they had to sell this land. Money from the sale of the land was used to finance more railroad building. Furthermore, the sale of the land would, the companies hopes, attract more passengers and freight as more would be travelling west to live and work there.
126
Why were homesteaders nicknamed 'sod-busters'?
Because, once a claim was staked and registered, all families needed to build a house which was solid, safe, secure, and able to withstand the weather of the Plains, which was extreme. They, first by hand, and later with specially built ploughs, cut blocks of earth (sods) to use as bricks to build homes.
127
Describe sod houses.
Sod houses, solid and strong, had to withstand gales and storms, drought and blistering heat, grasshoppers and prairie fires. They also had to house men, women and children, keeping them warm and well enough to make a living from the prairies outside. It took about an acre of land to provide enough sods to build an average-sized sod house on the Plains. The walls were about a metre thick, and the house was roofed with grass and more sods. Once built, the house would be plastered with wet, clay-like mud which set hard and made the house more or less watertight.
128
Describe sod houses.
Sod houses, solid and strong, had to withstand gales and storms, drought and blistering heat, grasshoppers and prairie fires. They also had to house men, women and children, keeping them warm and well enough to make a living from the prairies outside. It took about an acre of land to provide enough sods to build an average-sized sod house on the Plains. The walls were about a metre thick, and the house was roofed with grass and more sods. Once built, the house would be plastered with wet, clay-like mud which set hard and made the house more or less watertight. Though seemingly warm and cosy, they still had their setbacks.
129
Describe sod houses.
Sod houses, solid and strong, had to withstand gales and storms, drought and blistering heat, grasshoppers and prairie fires. They also had to house men, women and children, keeping them warm and well enough to make a living from the prairies outside. It took about an acre of land to provide enough sods to build an average-sized sod house on the Plains. The walls were about a metre thick, and the house was roofed with grass and more sods. Once built, the house would be plastered with wet, clay-like mud which set hard and made the house more or less watertight. Though seemingly warm and cosy, they still had their setbacks.
130
What did the women do on the Plains?
They kept their family warm, fed, clothed, clean and healthy. Their contribution to the successful settlement of the Plains didn't go unrecognised by officialdom, and in 1869, women in Wyoming Territory were given the vote, nearly 50 years before women in Britain.
131
Why were contagious diseases so common for those living on the Great Plains?
(source C.G.Barns' 'The Sod House', published 1970) Contagious diseases were common. The commondrinking cup, the open well, the outdoor toilet (orno toilet at all) shared the blame with the lack ofventilation and crowded quarters of the sod house. Thefloor was commonly of clay dirt. It was not possibleto scrub or disinfect it of the millions of germs thatfound a breeding place in the dirt trodden underfoot.Spitting was common. No wonder the death rate fromdiphtheria was so great among children. While thehouses were, as a rule, warm in winter and cool insummer for the human occupants, they favoured fleasand bed bugs by the million. Added to the loweringof vitality by lack of a balanced ration of food, lack ofclothing, and changes of temperature, the wonder isnot so much that disease and infection took a heavytoll. The wonder is that so many survived.
132
Every homesteader needed fuel, as without it the whole family would be cold, hungry and dirty. As there were hardly any trees on the plains, and therefore no wood to burn, what did they do?
The sod-buster's wife collected barrow loads of dried cow/buffalo dung, which there was plenty of. It burned well, but quickly.
133
Why did the homesteader women fight a constant battle against dirt and disease?
Because spiders, fleas, and all kinds of insects lived in the earth walls and floors of sod houses. The homesteader women had an uncertain water supply, little soap, some rags, and brushes made from twigs.
134
What was life like for 'schoolmarms', unmarried women who taught at sod schools on the Plains?
The pay was usually low, and they often lived with the families of children they taught. These 'schoolmarms' didn't have to struggle in the same way as the homesteaders' wives. but faced prejudice.
135
What were the initial problems with ploughing and sowing on the Plains?
Before crops could be grown, homesteaders had to plough the ground to plant seeds. The Plains hadn't been plowed ever before, and the grasses that grew there had roots that formed a tangled mass at least 10cm deep. The cast iron ploughs that many brought with them bent and buckled under the strain and had to be repaired constantly.
136
What were the initial problems with water on the Plains?
An average of 38cm of rain fell on the Plains in a normal year, which wasn't enough. To make matters worse, it fell at the wrong time: in the summer, when the sun and hot winds dried up what little moisture there was. The 'old' solutions would have been to irrigate or dig wells. Irrigation was impossible, and wells were expensive and uncertain. Everyone went short on water.
137
What were the initial problems with land holdings on the Plains?
The size of a homesteader's holding was clearly important. It had to be large enough to support himself and his family and small enough for him to work himself or with family help. The government allocation of 160 acres couldn't yield enough to support the average homesteader and his family.
138
What were the initial problems with crops on the Plains?
At first, the homesteaders planted the crops that they knew best. they planted maize and soft winter and spring wheats. These crops didn't do well on the Plains, with the low rainfall, scorchingly hot summers and extremely cold winters. In order to make farming profitable, farmers have to grow crops which will fetch a good priced. It was the same for the homesteader, except he had to first find something which would grow successfully.
139
What were the initial problems with fencing (not the sport) on the Plains?
Homesteaders needed to fence their land to make a clear boundary between their claim and their neighbours', and to stop cattle straying onto their land and destroying crops.
140
What were the initial problems with fencing (not the sport) on the Plains?
Homesteaders needed to fence their land to make a clear boundary between their claim and their neighbours', and to stop cattle straying onto their land and destroying crops. However, they had no timber to build fences with, and hedging plants, even if they survived, wouldn't grow quickly enough.
141
What were the problems with fire on the Plains?
In the summer and autumn, when the prairie grasslands were bone dry, the merest spark could set off a fire that'd run wild. Homesteaders could beat out small fires, but once one took hold, all they could do was hide inside their homes as their crops were destroyed and their animals burnt to death, until the fire burnt itself out.
142
Between 1874-77, which devastation hit the Plains?
Rocky mountain locusts swarmed through the prairies, devouring everything in their path. It seemed that there was nothing they wouldn't eat: crops, tree bark, leather boots, buckets, wooden door frames and even washing.
143
What was the solution to the initial problems with ploughing and sowing on the Plains?
Gradually, the factories in the East of the US began mass-producing farm machinery, so mechanical reapers, binders and threshers became cheaper. Ploughs built with steel ploughshares cut through the soil easily.Also, mass-produced machinery came with spare parts, so could be easily repaired.
144
What was the solution to the initial problems with water on the Plains?
Cattlemen and railroad builders used wind pumps, which were quickly adapted to meet the needs of the farmer. First, a high-powered drill was used to get down to the water, which was sometimes several hundred metres below surface. Then, a wind pump was built to raise the water to the surface.
145
What was the solution to the initial problems with fencing (not the sport) on the Plains?
Barbed wire; in 1874, it was invented by Joseph Glidden. Barbed wire meant that the homesteaders could fence their land quickly, efficiently and cheaply. They could plant crops with the knowledge that herds of cattle would trample/eat it it. They could experiment with animal breeding, knowing that stray bulls wouldn't mate with their stock. However, in using barbed wire to protect their own livelihood, they destroyed that of others.
146
What was 'dry farming', and why was it useful?
It was a technique learned and used by the homesteaders. Farmers ploughed their land whenever it rained or snowed, which created a fine film of dust on the soil, trapping moisture and preventing it from evaporating. In this way, homesteaders conserved water and grew better crops.
147
What was 'Turkey Red', and why was it useful?
In 1874, a group of Russian migrants arrived on the Plains, bringing with them 'Turkey Red', a variety of wheat which grew well in the harsh Russian climate. By 1881, homesteaders had worked out a way of grinding this new, hard, wheat
148
By the 1860s, why was the US government keen to get involved in railroad development?
Railroads would allow the government to bring law and order to the territories in the west, and in doing so would create a sense of national unity. Trade links with countries in the Far East, such as China and Japan, could be made from ports in Oregon and California. Railroads were essential to get goods for export to these ports. Railroads would be another way to help fulfil Manifest Destiny by making it easier for would-be migrants to reach uninhabited areas of America.
149
By the 1860s, why was the US government keen to get involved in railroad development?
Railroads would allow the government to bring law and order to the territories in the west, and in doing so would create a sense of national unity. Trade links with countries in the Far East, such as China and Japan, could be made from ports in Oregon and California. Railroads were essential to get goods for export to these ports. Railroads would be another way to help fulfil Manifest Destiny by making it easier for would-be migrants to reach uninhabited areas of America.
150
When did Congress pass the Pacific Railways Act, and what did this act do?
In 1862, and it set up two companies: the Union Pacific Railroad Company and the Central Pacific Railroad company. Union Pacific began laying track going westward across the plains from Omaha, Nebraska. Central Pacific began in Sacramento and went east.
151
Why did the railroad companies risk building railroads across the Plains?
Because the risk was small. Railroad companies, like all companies, existed to make a profit for their shareholders, who were those who had bought shares in the company. In order to reduce risk, the railroad companies accepted the US government's offer of free land. They could therefore build tracks without spending shareholder's money on land. The land on each side of the tracks could be used as security for bank loans, or could be sold to would-be settlers and the money raised ploughed back into the company. It looked like a 'win-win' situation for them.
152
Why was land a problem with railroad construction?
Because railroads had to cross the most difficult terrain in the USA: mountains, valleys and deserts. These stretched the skills of the engineers
153
Why was land a problem with railroad construction?
Because railroads had to cross the most difficult terrain in the USA: mountains, valleys and deserts. These stretched the skills of the engineers and construction workers to the limit
154
Why were living and working conditions a problem with railroad construction?
Railroad workers lived and worked in horrible, squalid conditions. They faced driving rain, hail, gales and snow. They depended on food transported hundreds of kilometres in less than ideal, unrefrigerated conditions, and died in their hundreds.
155
Why was labour shortage a problem with railroad construction?
In 1863, the Central Pacific Company solved the continual problem of labour shortages by using immigrant Chinese labour. Between 7000-10,000 additional workers were brought in from China. When the US government set a final deadline, 10th May 1863, for completion of the railway, Irish labourers were brought in and the deadline was met.
156
Why were Plains Indians a problem with railroad construction?
They remained a problem for the white men, just as the white men were a problem for them. Indians harassed the railroad builders, desperately afraid that their hunting grounds were being taken from them.
157
Why were Plains Indians a problem with railroad construction?
They remained a problem for the white men, just as the white men were a problem for them. Indians harassed the railroad builders, desperately afraid that their hunting grounds were being taken from them.
158
Why were supplies a problem with railroad construction?
Because getting wood, food and water and rails to the railroad builders was a challenge; as much as possible was brought in along the built track. When the track that was safe to use ended, all supplies had to continue forward on wagons.
159
What benefits did the railroads bring to people in need of work?
The actual building process created a lot of jobs; surveying and track laying, digging cuttings and building viaducts or tunnels needed different sorts of skills from a large and mobile workforce.
160
What benefits did the railroads bring to industry?
The demands of railways, e.g. iron, steel, timber, led to tremendous growth in the industries that supplied the railroad building programme.
161
What benefits did the railroads bring to government officials and law enforcement?
They could travel relatively easily from coast to coast, bringing all American people under the same federal laws.
162
What benefits did the railroads bring to homesteaders?
Wind Pumps and drills, steam traction engines and ploughs, barbed wire and mechanical reapers, all essential to the prosperity of the farmer on the Plains, were not manufactured there, and were brought to the homesteaders by the railroads. They also brought furniture, fabrics, clothes, shoes, stoves, pots and pans, and oil lamps.
163
How did the railroads contribute to the growing of the cattle industry?
The opening up of new markets meant that cattle ranching on the Plains could grow and a thriving cattle industry could develop.
164
What benefits did the railroads bring to trade?
Commercial companies began trade with China and Japan, using the growing west coast ports.
165
What did the railroads do for family unity?
Contact with relatives living far away was more easily established, strengthening family bonds.
166
What did the US 'railroad-building boom' coincide with?
The USA's industrial revolution, which it helped to create. By 1890, the USA was the world's leading industrial power, with a rail network bigger than Europe's.
167
How did the railroads affect the Indian's way of life r.e. buffalo?
Their freedom to roam the Great Plains, hunting the huge herds of buffalo, was severely hampered by the railroads criss-crossing the Plains. Homesteaders and ranchers fenced in their farmland, meaning that the days of the open prairie were gone. They relied almost entirely on the buffalo to support and maintain their way of life, but buffalo hunting became a sport among white men, with special excursion trains taking the hunters onto the Plains.
168
Why did cowboys wear a stetson?
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169
Why did cowboys wear a stetson?
Made of felt, the stetson's broad brm protected the wearer from the sun and served as an umbrella in rainy weather. In winter, pulled down over the ears and tied, it gave protection from frostbite.
170
Why did cowboys wear a stetson?
Made of felt, the stetson's broad brim protected the wearer from the sun and served as an umbrella in rainy weather. In winter, pulled down over the ears and tied, it gave protection from frostbite.
171
Why did cowboys wear a bandana?
Worn around the neck, it was usually used as a mask. When the cowboy rode along behind the herd of cattle, he pulled the bandana up over his nose and mouth to protect him from the dust.
172
Why did cowboys wear 'chaps'?
They were like a pair of trousers with a cut-out seat.. Many were made of the shaggy skin of a bear, goat or sheep, and were also made to withstand the thorny vegetation and the cutting north wind, and to protect the legs fro chafing during a long ride, and in the case of a fall.
173
Why did cowboys wear 'chaps'?
They were like a pair of trousers with a cut-out seat.. Many were made of the shaggy skin of a bear, goat or sheep, and were also made to withstand the thorny vegetation and the cutting north wind, and to protect the legs from chafing during a long ride, and in the case of a fall.
174
Why did cowboys wear the boots they wore?
The heel and arch were constructed so that the foot and leg were comfortable when riding. Spurs were worn at all times.
175
How did the cattle industry start in Texas?
After the war between the USA and Mexico ended, white American Texans took over the herds of longhorn cattle left behind by the retreating Mexicans. As the demand for meat gre, unofficial trails were established as the Texan cowboys drove the longhorns to markets in New Orleans, California and Chicago, and Texan cattle ranchers became rich. However, the Civil War (1861-65) put an end to all this as Texans left to fight on the Confederate, and losing, side. When those who survived returned, they found huge herds of cattle running wild, as the longhorn cattle had toughened up in order to survive, and had bred until around 5 million of them were roaming the grasslands of Texas.
176
Why did the returning cattlemen from the Civil war round up cattle, hire cowboys and begin to organise regular drives to the northern cities?
Because they knew that the growing cities in the north would pay about $40 per head of cattle, which was about ten times the price beef fetched in Texas.
177
When Charles Goodnight returned home to Texas after the Civil War, he found that his herd of cattle had increased in size to about 8000. Instead of driving a couple thousand to the nearest railhead to reach markets in the east, what did he do and why?
He'd heard that US troops were holding 7,000 Navaho Indians captive on a reservation near Fort Sumner in New Mexico, and that the Indians were close to starvation. So, he teamed up with Oliver Loving, an experienced cattle drover, and they hired 18 cowboys, selected 2000 cattle from Goodnight's herd, and set off to Fort Sumner. The lack of water nearly ruined their expedition, and many animals died before they reached the Pecos River. Even so, they still reached Fort Sumner with 1,700 head of cattle to sell. These fed the Indians on their reservation and the army in its fort. So began Goodnight's profitable career in the cattle industry, supplying the US army and Indian reservations with cattle as far north as Fort Laramie.
178
In south-east Kansas, why did armed mobs attack cattlemen on the cattle trails?
They were afraid that a deadly tick, carried by the longhorns but not affecting them, would infect cattle on the land through which the trails passed.
179
What, asides from armed mobs attacking them, were problems for cattlemen on the cattle trails?
- Rustlers on all the trails were prepared to fight and kill to get the longhorns for themselves.
- Hostile Indians were a problem on every trail; Oliver Loving died in 1867 as a result of wounds inflicted by a Comanche raiding party.
180
What was the problem with the Goodnight-Loving trail?
Though it avoided white mobs in Missouri and Kansas, and, to a certain extent, hostile Indians, it suffered from a lack of water and was too far west for the eastern markets, which were bigger and more profitable, and therefore the ones that most cattlemen wanted to reach.
181
Cattlemen were desperate to get their cows to the markets in the eastern states, and some tried to establish trails further and further east, driving their cattle to railheads at Sedalia and St Louis. What was the problem with this?
The grass along these new trails was poor, and the animals arrived for shipment in poor condition.
182
What was Joseph McCoy's plan?
Instead of having the cattlemen drive their herds to the railheads and load them on to a train to be taken to markets in the East where they would be sold, his plan was to set up cow towns in the west. It would be in these cow towns that the southern cattleman and the northern buyer would meet on equal footing to buy and sell the herds, undisturbed by rustlers, aggressive mobs and hostile Indians.
183
Describe the development of Joseph McCoy's cow town, Abilene.
Though it was initially no more than a collection of huts, it had all the grass and water needed when thousands of cattle gathered there, waiting to be sold. McCoy had timber brought in and built offices, cattle pens and a small hotel. In 1867, cattlemen took about 37,000 cattle along the Chisholm Trail from San Antonio to Abilene. By 1870, the number of cattle passing through Abilene had grown to over 300,000 and Abilene had three more hotels and ten saloons. Between 1867-81, nearly 1.5 million head of cattle passed through the town.
184
Where was Abilene, the first cow town, built?
On the Kansas Pacific Railroad.
185
Why did the cattle drives end?
- The railroads across the Great Plains, though making many cattlemen rich, also brought people who began to settle on the Great Plains, and the homesteader's farms began to block the trails.
- In 1851, the US government and the chiefs of the northern tribes agreed the Fort Laramie treaty, so then the Indians began to make the cowboys pay to drive the cattle across Indian land.
- The cattlemen began to believe it would be easier to raise cattle on the plains instead of driving cattle across them.
186
Who was John Iliff?
He was an entrepreneur who, as a young man, had set up as a trader in Kansas, selling food and goods to travellers on the Oregon and California trails. When gold was discovered, he moved further out to supply the miners with the goods they needed. Later, he decided to try being a different sort of cattleman; he began to graze cattle on the Plains, which was the beginning of ranching.
187
What did John Iliff do which meant that his business grew and prospered?
- He enlarged his herd by buying Oliver Loving's cows, which were being driven to Colorado.
- He experimented with breeding and produced cows with sweeter meat than the Texan longhorns. They were less hardy, but that didn't matter as they didn't need to survive long drives.
- He won a contract to supply meat to the Union Pacific Railroad construction gangs
- He sent his beef to cities in the eastern states using the newly invented refrigerated railroad cars that meant the animals could be slaughtered before being transported.
- He won a contract in 1872 to supply beef to Red Cloud and over 7000 Sioux Indians who had been moved by the US government to land near Fort Laramie
188
What was the 'open range'?
The ranches on the Great Plains were 'open ranges', unfenced land that was claimed, but not owned, by the ranchers. Each rancher had 'claim rights' to the land he owned, which included the right to reserve a waterhole or stream for his cattle.
189
Why was overstocking a problem for ranchers?
As cattle prices rose, ranchers put more and more cows on the open range. This put pressure on the grass, and the drought of 1883 made the problem worse because the grass withered. Overstocking, even in good times, was not a clever idea. The situation was worsened when the price of cattle fell, and more ranchers kept their cattle instead of taking them to market. This in turn affected the investors who'd backed the setting up of large cattle companies. They'd paid large prices while things were booming, and the drop in cattle prices meant that investors were less likely to back the cattle industry.
190
Why was demand a problem for ranchers?
In the eastern states, beef was so readily available that shops had to lower their prices in order to sell the meat they had bought. This meant that the prices paid for cattle carcasses fell, as there was simply too much meat about. By 1882, profits from cattle ranching were beginning to fall; some ranchers sold up and the price of cattle fell even further. Others kept the cattle on the ranches, hoping for better times. People's tastes also changed and they no longer wanted the tough range beef of the Longhorns, preferring to buy fatter meat.
191
Why was the climate a problem for ranchers?
The cold, blustery winter of 1885 hit cattle and ranchers hard. The summer that followed was so hot that grass withered and streams dried up. The following winter was the worst in living memory, with temperatures falling as low as -55°C. Cattle couldn't reach the grass through the deep snow and died in their thousands. At least 15% of the herd perished, along with cowboys, and many cattlemen went bankrupt.
192
In the aftermath of the 'boom' days of ranching, it seemed sensible to create smaller units producing high-quality. As animals couldn't be allowed to wander freely due to carefully managed breeding, they were fenced in with barbed wire fences which brought them into conflict with the homesteaders. Why was this, and how was the issue resolved?
The homesteaders claimed that the ranchers were cutting them off from their water supplies. The invention of wind pumps, meaning that ranchers could find water almost anywhere on their ranches, solved this problem. Portable wind pumps gave the ranchers even more flexibility, as they could then take the pump to their herd rather than vice versa.
193
When the days of the open range were over, technology allowed a new way of ranching to develop. Why was this a good thing?
- This was much less dependent on the weather, as smaller herds could easily be found when the snows closed in and brought closer to the ranch where there was shelter and food. In times of drought, water could easily be found.
- It was aksi much more sustainable. Smaller units were much more manageable than the large open ranges and made better use of the resources found on the ranches
194
What were the dangers and problems that cowboys faced?
- Stampedes: these usually happened during the first days of the drive, when the cows were nervous and ready to bolt at anything: a flash of lightning, a whinny of a horse or a roll of thunder. Once a stampede had started, the cowboys worked frantically to turn the herd in on itself so that the cattle, circling at speed, would exhaust themselves.
- Wildlife: Wolves could be particularly troublesome, as could scorpions and poisonous snakes
- Water: Rivers had to be crossed and undercurrents could be dangerous. Quicksands could drown a horse and rider, or a cow, within minutes.
- Indians: They were unpredictable, sometimes friendly, sometimes nice, and always ready to steal some cows.
195
Although they still rounded up cattle and branded them, and still took cattle to market, ranching, and the end of the drives, changed the work patterns and the lives of the cowboys. How so?
- They also had to 'ride the line', making sure that nobody's range rights had encroached those of their boss, looking out for sick animals and animals in distress, and shooting predators.
- They had more comfortable lives, which were hard to adjust for some; the wild lives of the cowboys were over and their lives became mundane and predictable.
- It was common for bosses to forbid drinking and gambling, as well as the carrying of guns and knives, while on the ranch.
196
What did the establishment of fenced ranches mean for cowboys?
Fewer cowboys were needed, and for those that remained, their jobs became more mundane and predictable. The wild life of a cowboy was over, continuing only in novels and music halls, films and circuses.
197
Why was the West such a violent, lawless place?
Setting up a system of government took a long while, and in the meantime violent men (and some women) took advantage of this while they could. Even when a government was set up, it wasn't always successful; many men supposed to keep law and order were dishonest, and criminals were often able to outwit even honest lawmen.
198
How did the fact that travel to and in the West was slow and difficult contribute to the West being a violent, lawless place?
Law enforcers, such as Sheriffs, couldn't move around quickly.
199
How did the fact that the new mining and cow towns sprung up quickly contribute to the West being a violent, lawless place?
The government didn't have enough properly trained law enforcement officers.
200
How did the fact that many different people followed different occupations on the same land contribute to the West being a violent, lawless place?
There were then many potential causes of conflict between them, e.g. between cattlemen and homesteaders, cowboys and townspeople, miners and mountain men.
201
How did the fact that there were many different ethnic groups contribute to the West being a violent, lawless place?
There were then many potential causes of conflict between them; all had different backgrounds, world views, values and ambitions.
202
How did the aftermath of the Civil War (1861-65) contribute to the West being a violent, lawless place?
Many ex-soldiers roamed the West, unable to settle to civilian life, bearing grudges and ready to settle old scores.
203
How did the fact that the West was dominated by a rugged individualism contribute to the West being a violent, lawless place?
All thought they should look after themselves and sort out their own problems. Most in the West carried guns, and so quarrels were often settled by a shooting.
204
The crimes in the West were the same committed globally: assault, theft and murder. What made the west different?
In the early days, there were numerous opportunities for crime because the rule of law was fairly rough and ready. The area attracted many with no respect for the law.
205
Which crimes were committed in the West?
Bank robbery, cattle rustling, claim jumping, fence cutting, horse stealing, murder, racial attacks, train robbery, and trail robbery.
206
How violent were the cow towns?
Most legendary shootouts weren't fictional. Cowboys desperate for relaxation and entertainment gave the cow towns, particularly 'Dodge City', terrible reputations for gambling, womanising and gunfights. However, regulations against carrying guns were in force in all cow towns: between 1870-85, only 39 men died from gunshot wounds. Only twice were as many as five men killed in a single year. By 1870, Abilene was large enough to have some form of local government, with officials stopping guns from being brought into the towns. In 1872 cowboys themselves were banned.
207
Who was Belle Starr?
She was a notorious gangster who lived with, and sometimes married, a string of gangsters as well as a Cherokee Indian called Sam Starr. She planned and carried out robberies herself, rustled cattle and stole horses. She was the first woman in the West to be charged with horse theft and served a five-year prison sentence. She was shot in the back in 1889 at the age of 41.
208
What were vigilante committees?
They were set up to administer rough justice. Once a vigilante committee had identified someone as the committer of a crime, they inflicted punishment by lynching or running the suspects out of town. At one point or another during this period around 200 vigilante groups operated west of the Mississippi, many of which were run by the leaders of local communities.
209
How was law-keeping enforced legally?
Texas rangers were set up in 1820 whilst Texas still had territory status. There were Arizona rangers, too, and both were small groups of highly efficient and effective lawmen. The Pinkerton detective Agency was a private detective agency which did a lot of work in the West, bringing criminals to justice. Banks, railroad companies and stagecoach companies employed Pinkerton detectives to track robbers and thieves, and also to provide general advice and protection.
210
What happened when suspected criminals were caught?
Suspected criminals were thrown in gaol until they could be properly tried in court. Though federal judges were appointed by the President, there were only three for each territory and so they had to travel around it, meaning accused sometimes had to wait months to be trialed. This resulted in lynching.
211
Why did the situation with lynching improve once a territory became a state?
Because the state governor could then appoint judges to try offences against state law.
212
What was the Johnson County War?
A fierce and bloody war which broke out between cattlemen and homesteaders.
213
Why were the mid-1880s disastrous years for ranchers in Wyoming and all over the Great Plains, and how did this lead to the clashing of cattlemen and homesteaders?
Homesteaders began taking over land from bankrupt ranchers. Every time they claimed land and fenced it off, especially if it was around a water call, the rancher's anger and resentment grew. Gradually, the community split off into two hostile groups.
214
What happened to Ella Watson and Jim Averill?
They ran a small store together. Ella was a prostitute, and the problem was that her 'customers' sometimes paid her with rustled cows. To make matters worse, they rented their land from a man who suspected them of rustling his cattle. It was when Jim wrote a letter to a local newspaper which denounced ranchers as being nothing but rich land-grabbers. Albert had had enough and so, in July 1889, he arrived at their cabin with some friends, took them out and killed them.
215
What happened after Ella Watson and Jim Averill's murders which lead up to the Johnson County War? (not as a direct consequence of their murders, though)
Other killings and murder attempts followed, which left three owners of small ranches dead. Rustling continued, and the Wyoming Stock Growers Association (formed by the Cattle Barons) hired about 50 gunmen, called the Regulators, to shoot down troublemakers. In response, the small ranch owners established the rival 'Northern Wyoming Farmers and Stock Growers Association'
216
Describe the Wyoming Stock Growers Association's plans to invade Johnson County in 1892 (with the full knowledge of the Governor of Wyoming!).
It drew up a list of 70 people suspected of cattle rustling, then hired 22 Texan gunmen to supplement the Regulators. These gunmen, brought into Wyoming on a train specially supplied by the Union Pacific Railroad Company, were paid $5 per day, plus expenses, with an additional $50 for every rustler that they killed. An invasion of Johnson County was planned, with the idea being to capture the town of Buffalo, kill the Sheriff, and then kill the rest of the men on the Association's list.
217
How did the invading side of the Johnson County War begin?
By cutting the telegraph wires, thus isolating Johnson County from the outside world.
218
After cutting the telegraph wires, what did the invading side of the Johnson County War do?
They stopped to attack the KC ranch, and were held off by Nick Ray and Nate Champion. After Nick's death, Nate held out all day before being burned out of his cabin.
219
What happened after the invading side of the Johnson County War stopped to attack the KC ranch, and were held off by Nick Ray and Nate Champion?
Word reached Red Angus, Sheriff of Johnson COunty, and he quickly raised a force of 300 men and went after the invaders. They were besieged at the TA ranch until the US 6th Cavalry arrived and saved them.
220
What was the effect of the Johnson County War?
Though never convicted, the actions of the defeated ranchers were widely condemned and organisations like the Wyoming Stock Growers Association were never allowed such power as they once had. The homesteaders continued farming, and the ranchers enclosed their ranges.
221
What were the terms of the Fort Laramie treaty?
The Indians were given land (they believed forever) along the foothills of the Rocky Mountains between the North Platte and Arkansas rivers. The government promised to protect them and pay the tribes $5000 per year for ten years. In return, the Indians agreed to stop attacking travellers along the Oregon trail, and to allow the government to build roads and military posts.
222
Why did the Fort Laramie Treaty's policies become known as 'concentration'?
Because the Indians were concentrated in specific areas. The days of one big reservation in the West were over; so were the days of the Permanent Indian Frontier.
223
In 1859, gold was discovered in the Rocky Mountains. What did this result in the general public doing?
- White men surged through the Cheyenne and Arapaho lands, forgetting about the agreements that had been made with the Indians.
- Miners and other settlers moved on to Indian lands in Kansas and Nebraska.
224
What did the railroad companies do which partly resulted in the breaking of the Fort Laramie treaty?
They demanded the removal of buffalo and Indians from the routes along which they planned to build railroads across the Great Plains.
225
When did Colorado become a territory, and what did this mean?
It meant that it belonged officially to white America, and this happened in 1861.
226
As the Americans had broken the Fort Laramie treaty, so would the Cheyenne and Arapaho in their revenge. What did they do?
Both Arapaho and Cheyenne began serious attacks on railroad surveyors and travellers.
227
In 1861, after both parties had broken the Fort Laramie treaty, the government summoned the tribal chiefs to Fort Wise. What then happened?
The Indians were forced to abandon the terms of the Fort Laramie treaty, and were (instead of the previously agreed land along the foothills of the Rockies) given a small reservation between the Arkansas River and Sand Creek in eastern Colorado.
228
What was the problem with the Fort Wise treaty?
Indian chiefs had no power to force their people to do anything. Most warriors refused to accept the Fort Wise Treaty and went on the warpath, raiding mining camps and attacking mail coaches in Colorado and New Mexico. The carefully worked out treaties worked for neither the US government or the Indians.
229
What lead to 'Little Crow's War' in 1862?
Little Crow and his band of Santee Sioux were living on a reservation in Minnesota. In 1861, the crops failed and the compensation the Santee had been promised had not arrived from Washington, leaving 12,000 Santee facing starvation.
230
What happened during 'Little Crow's War' in 1862?
In August 1862, Little Crow had had enough and led the Santee warriors in an attack on the Agency, which was the organisation set up by the government to run the reservation. The Santee took all the food/provisions from the Agency's bunkhouses and distributed it among their starving people, then burnt the Agency buildings to the ground. Then, the attacked a party of 45 US army soldiers heading to deal with the incident, killing nearly half of them.
231
How did 'Little Crow's War' in 1862 end?
By October (it started in August), 2000 Santee had either been captured or surrendered. What was left of the Santee tribe was moved to a new, smaller reservation; Crow Creek in Minnesota. The land was barren, the food scarce and the water unfit for drinking. Several hundred Santee died in the first winter. They were visited by Sitting Bull, and important Sioux Chief, and the circumstances there changed his attitude towards settlers and the US government.
232
What was the 'Sand Creek Massacre' of 1864?
The Cheyenne, under their chief Black Kettle, faced similar problems on the Sand Creek reservation in Colorado to the Santee Sioux in Minnesota. The starving Indians started attacking wagon trains, taking only food and leaving travellers unharmed. After three years, Black Kettle tried to reach an agreement with the officials, and, believing himself safe to do so, set up camp at Sand Creek. Colonel Chivington was given responsibility for protecting settlers and dealing with the Indians, and led a dawn raid on Black Kettle's camp on November 29th 1864. There, he and his men massacred over 450 men, women, children and babies, despite them waving white flags of surrender.
233
What happened because Black Kettle escaped the 'Sand Creek Massacre' of 1864?
He brought news of the massacre to other tribes. Immediately the Indians increased their attacks on white people. A US Senate Committee of enquiry, set up to enquire into the massacre, condemned Chivington.
234
What happened after people found out about the events of the 'Sand Creek Massacre' of 1864?
White men and Indians both were horrified at what had happened and demanded an end to the wars. In October 1865, US Government officials met with Indian representatives at Bluff Creek, on the Arkansas river. In return for giving up their land claims and stopping violence, the Cheyenne agreed to accept money, and land in Oklahoma.
235
What initially caused the 'Red Cloud's War' of 1865-68?
The discovery of gold in Montana; the need for a connection between these new gold fields and the Oregon trail led to gold miner John Bozeman establishing the Bozeman Trail, which ran through the hunting grounds of the Sioux. This broke the Fort Laramie treaty of 1851.
236
How did the Indians react to the breaking of the Fort Laramie treaty by way of the Bozeman Trail?
The Indians (led by Red Cloud, Chief of the Lakota Sioux) began attacking travellers along the Bozeman Trail.
237
How did the US government react to the Indians (led by Red Cloud, Chief of the Lakota Sioux) beginning to attacking travellers along the Bozeman Trail, and how was their reaction taken by the Indians?
By 1866, they'd had enough, and set up talks with red Cloud. At the last moment, however, Red Cloud discovered that the army was planning to build at least two more forts along the Bozeman trail (to protect travellers), so stormed out of the meeting.The Indians then kept up the pressure by attacking soldiers and other workers building the forts. Red Cloud was joined in his efforts by two other -equally determined- Sioux leaders: Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse.
238
What was Fetterman's trap?
In December 1866, Captain William Fetterman and a group of eighty soldiers left Fort Kearny to provide protection for a wagon train bringing wood for building. they rode straight into a trap laid by the Sioux and were wiped out. Later, this was called 'Fetterman's Trap'.
239
How was the 'Red Cloud's War' of 1865-68 brought to a stalemate?
The Indians surrounded Fort Kearney in a ring with armed warriors. This meant that the US army couldn't move outside the fort and no traveller could move along the Bozeman Trail, hence the stalemate.
240
How was the the 'Red Cloud's War' of 1865-68's stalemate resolved?
In March 1867, the US government set up a peace treaty commission to try solving the Indian problem completely. Evidently, previous peace treaties hadn't worked, and so the US government decided that the only answer to this problem was to split up the tribes, putting them in separate reservations. This resulted in the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868.
241
What did the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868 include?
The US government agreed to abandon three forts and the Bozeman trail (another route from the gold fields had already been found), and Red Cloud agreed to take his people to a reservation in Dakota, stretching from the Black Hills of Dakota to the Missouri
242
How did the combination of the Northern Pacific Railroad and Custer's actions cause the Great Sioux War of 1876-77?
The Northern Pacific Railroad company was fast approaching Sioux hunting grounds in Dakota. In 1874 George Custer, leading an expedition from Fort Abraham Lincoln to protect railroad builders, found gold. Within 6 months, thousands of prospectors were swarming all over the Black Hills, staking claims to land that belonged to the Sioux by right and by US law, a clear breach of the 1868 Fort Laramie Treaty.
243
How did the government react to the prospectors swarming over the Black Hills due to Custer's gold discovery?
They offered to buy the Black Hills from the Sioux for $6 million or $400,000 a year for the mineral rights. The Indians refused the offer.
244
In December 1876, the government ordered the Sioux to return to their reservation. They were given 60 days to do so, after which they would be considered hostile and attacked. Why was it impossible for all of the Indians to obey, even if they had wanted to?
Deep snows and the usual appalling winter weather. By the spring of 1876, more than 7000 Indians, 2000 of which where warriors, had erected around 1000 lodges on lands between the Powder and Rosebud Rivers, ready for war. Sitting Bull had a vision of white men falling into a Sioux camp, which could be interpreted as meaning that the Sioux would have a great victory. And so they (Sitting Bull & Crazy Horse) led their people west, towards 'Greasy Grass River', known to the whites as 'Little Bighorn'.
245
Describe the lead up to, and the events of, the Battle of Little Big Horn.
General Philip Sheridan was sent to defeat the Sioux.
In June 1876 US armies, led by the generals Alfred Terry and John Gibbon, met at the Yellowstone river. Gibbon was set to march up the Little Bighorn river, and Lt Colonel George Custer was ordered to march round the Wolf mountains, as part of a two-pronged attack on the Sioux camp. The Sioux had been joined by the Cheyenne and Arapaho, making an army of more than 3,000 warriors, armed with Winchester repeating rifles. Custer marched his men through (not round) the Wolf mountains, to arrive at the Sioux camp first. Custer divided his 600 men into three groups. Custer sent Captain Frederick Benteen scouting, and sent Major Marcus Reno to attack the Sioux village from the south.
Custer headed north of the village with 215 men. The Sioux cut off both Reno and Custer. Benteen rescued Reno, but Custer and all of his troops lost their lives.
The Sioux withdrew when Terry and Gibbon arrived.
246
When Terry and his men arrived at Little Big Horn on the day after the Battle of Little Big Horn, what did they find?
The bodies of all 225 of Custer's men. Most had been stripped, disfigured and scalped. Custer himself had been shot twice: through the left temple and the heart. He'd been neither stripped nor scalped
247
What was the impact of the Battle of Little Big Horn on public opinion?
Until Little Bighorn, public opinion had been largely behind the government policy of trying to reach agreements with the Indians. The treaties of Fort Laramie and Fort Wise for example, showed how the government was trying to meet the needs of the Indians to hunt and roam as well as the demands of miners, settlers, ranchers and railroad builders. Little Bighorn changed all that.
248
How did the government and army react to the Battle of Little Big Horn (1876) in the same year it occurred?
Two new army forts were built on the Yellowstone river. 2500 army reinforcements were sent West. Although the Cheyenne and Sioux bands went their separate ways, the government pursued them relentlessly; short of ammunition, food and supplies, most Indians had exhaustedly drifted back to their reservation by the end of 1876.
249
What were the major things that the government and army did to react to the Battle of Little Big Horn (1876) in the five years after it occurred?
In the spring of 1877, Crazy Horse was captured by the US army and killed in the autumn while trying to escape from Fort Robinson. Sitting Bull took his people to Canada in the hope that they'd find British protection. However, shortage of food forced them to return, and they surrendered to US government forces in 1881. Back in their reservations, the Sioux were forced to sell the Black Hills, the Powder River Country and the Big Horn mountains. They were stripped of horses and weapons, and they had to live under military rule.
250
How did the army use the Indians (directly)?
The Sioux nation was dominant among the Plains Indians, and so the US army cunningly recruited spies from tribes hostile to the Sioux. These spies could be relied upon to hate the Sioux even more than they hated the army, so were an invaluable resource, providing informations about Sioux positions, battle tactics and the land over which they were fighting.
251
How did the army use the Indians (indirectly)?
The fact that the Indians couldn't put aside their traditional differences and fight together worked in the US Army's favour. A determined, united force of thousands of Indians would have been a formidable threat to the army, and may possibly have won. However despite efforts by those such as Red Cloud to get the tribes to all work together, this did not occur.
252
The US army set up a series of forts to protect people travelling the trails and to keep watch over the Indians on reservations. How important were these forts?
The army used them as bases from which to patrol the trails and attack troublesome Indians. Though the forts were attacked on many occasions, such as the attack on Fort Ridgely during Little Crow's War, and the attack on Fort Kearney during Red Cloud's war, the Indians never managed to capture one. The forts took the US army deep into Indian territory, and provided them with a place of safety if they needed it.
253
How were the Indians equipped during their struggle against the US Army?
Indians fought with their traditional weapons of bows and arrows, spears, knives and clubs. Though they had guns, they were less well equipped than the army. For example, when Crazy Horse surrendered in 1877 with his 250 warriors, they had between them 35 muzzle-loading rifles, 33 revolvers and 46 breech-loading rifles. In the US army, every soldier had a rifle, and army units often had artillery and Gatling guns.
254
Two of the most successful generals in the Civil War (William Sherman and Philip Sheridan) turned their attention to the Plains Indians once the Civil War was over. Total war involved a change in attitude. What was this?
War was to be waged against all Sioux: women, old men and children, not just braves. The Indians weren't directly attacked, but their tipis, animals, clothing and belongings were destroyed, so they had to pick between starving on the Plains or returning to the reservations.
255
Why were winter campaigns against the Indians successful?
The Indians were at their most vulnerable in winter, as heavy snow and sub-zero temperatures mean that the bands couldn't move; defeat at such a time would be devastating. The US army were well fed and sheltered in their forts, and so began to use the railroads to get close to the Indian camps.
256
The railroads played a central role in the destruction of the Indians and their way of life. How did their construction hit the Plains Indians hard?
Railroads crossed the traditional hunting grounds of the Plains Indians, and the US army protected the railroad builders from attacks.
257
What did the railroads bring on to the Plains that contributed to completing the destruction of the Indians and their way of life?
Homesteaders, soldiers (and their equipment) could be moved quickly over the Plains and tourists (for buffalo hunts).
258
How did the railroads' transportation of cattle across the Plains lead to the destruction of The railroads played a central role in the destruction of the Indians and their way of life?
The railroads taking cattle to the cities in the east of the USA increased demand and encouraged the development of ranching on the Plains, and cowboys took cattle on long drives across the Plains to the railheads, leading to trails cutting across Indian hunting grounds.
259
What was the Dawes Act of 1887?
The Dawes General Allotment Act was passed in 1887. It was a result of the general belief that, if Indians were to ever behave like white men, they had to be given land to farm. The Act divided the Indian reservations into farms of 160 acres for each adult and 80 acres for each child in a family. Any land left over was to be sold to white settlers.
260
What was the problem with the Dawes Act of 1887 (allocating land to Indians)?
Many Indians would not accept the land. Many who did accept it sold it back to white men near-instantly, for pitifully small amounts of money. Unhappy with the land they had to farm, or landless due to selling their allocation to the first bidder, more and more Indians were forced to become dependent on white people to feed them and give them shelter.
261
What was the Oklahoma land race of 1889?
As a result of the Dawes act of 1887, the reservations were gone, divided between Indians and whites who were prepared to farm the land. The solution to this was to open up the Indian territory to white settlers. On 23 March 1889, President Harrison announced that 2 million acres in the former Indian territory of Oklahoma would be opened up to settlers. Thousands of hopeful settlers gathered on the edge of the unopened territory, and on 22nd April, bugles, guns and flags told them they could cross the boundary. In 1893, a further 6 million acres were opened up for settlement. Less than 60 years earlier, this land had been promised to the Cherokee Indians forever.
262
How did the US government control the Indians by taking away the power of the tribal chiefs?
In 1871, the government decided that they would no longer sign treaties with tribal chiefs. In the early 1880s, special councils were set up among the tribes to take over the powers that the chiefs had had to look after their people on the reservations. In 1883, special courts took over the chiefs' power to judge and punish the Indians, but were abolished in 1885. In future, the US federal law courts would keep law and order among the Indians on their reservations and punish any wrongdoers. The Indians had lost all ability to govern themselves.
263
How did the US government control the Indians by taking away their children?
Children, taught the tribes' traditions and way of life, would continue to keep the tribe alive down through future generations. However, the government stopped this by taking off the reservations and sent to school. Any parent refusing was stripped of food rations until they agreed. In school, the children were punished if they spoke their own language, were taught to have no respect for their traditional way of life, and found upon returning to their reservations that they couldn't fit in with the Indian way of life, nor with the way of life of white America, aliens to both cultures.
264
How did the US government control the Indians by taking away their skills?
The Indians could not roam the Great Plains, and could not hunt; the buffalo were gone and so were their horses. The economic foundation of their society had been destroyed, as tehri was no buffalo meat for food, no buffalo hide for tipis and no chance of stealing horses.
265
Why was it a tall order to make the Plains Indians farm on reservations?
They were expected to transform themselves into farmers, but the skills they had were the skills of hunting and fighting, not ploughing, sowing and reaping. Farming was not a part of traditional Indian life for most tribes-the men earned honour and status through hunting, not farming. Gradually, the Indians became dependent on government handouts to keep them alive.
266
How did the US government control the Indians by taking away their religion?
The US government banned all Indian feasts, dances and ceremonies on the reservations. This was later to cause trouble (the ghost dance). The banning of ceremonies undermined the power of the medicine man in the tribe; no longer was their any point in young men seeking visions or any need to search for the buffalo. This spiritual gap was filled by the arrival of Christian missionaries who aimed to 'civilise' the Indians.
267
Were government agents, supposed to be looking after the interests of the Indians on the reservations, honest?
No. They were corrupt, or at the very least running scams on the side. Housing subsidies vanished; rations were inadequate and medical provision non-existent. Killer diseases such as measles and influenza were rife on the reservations, and added to the depressing and demoralising nature of the lives led by the Indians.
268
Why did some Indians cooperate with Indian agents (Sitting Bull refused to, however)?
Lesser chiefs gained importance, if only in the eyes of the government, by doing so. They also gained concessions such as increased food rations and better medical supplies. A number of Indians joined the Indian Agency Police where they were fed, clothed and sheltered and were generally able to maintain a reasonable standard of living.
269
How did the railroads contribute to the destruction of the buffalo?
Railroads brought tourists in special excursion trains on to the great plains to shoot buffalo for sport. Buffalo hunters were employed by the railroad companies to kill buffalo in order to keep their construction workers supplied with fresh meat. One of these hunters was William Cody, nicknamed 'Buffalo Bill' due to his skill.
270
How was industry to blame for the destruction of the buffalo herds?
In 1871, a tannery in the eastern states invented a process whereby high-grade leather could be made from buffalo hides. The price of buffalo hides shot up, and thousands upon thousands of them were killed. Trainload after trainload of hides were transported east as the numbers of white hunters increased dramatically.
271
What did around 700 Arapaho, Comanche, Cheyenne and Kiowa do in a desperate attempt to save the buffalo, and what was the outcome?
They launched an attack on buffalo hunters based near Adobe Walls on the western edge of the southern herd. They failed.
272
By when were the southern and northern herds decimated?
By the end of 1875, the southern herd was destroyed, and by 1883, so had the northern herd.
273
How did the slaughter of the buffalo benefit the US government?
When the reservations were first set up, the Indians were allowed to leave them to hunt buffalo. By the late 1860s, however, the US government policy had changed. Indians on reservations had to learn to live like white people, and so were forbidden from following their traditions- this included buffalo hunting. To remove the buffalo meant that there would be little point in the Indians protesting, thereby making them easier to control.
274
What was the Ghost Dance?
A Paiute Indian, Wovoka, claimed to have had a vision telling him that all Indians everywhere had to dance, dance and keep on dancing. The Great Spirit would then bring all the dead Indians back to life, sed a great flood to carry away the white people, and the land would belong to the Indians again. The Ghost Dance spread quickly through the reservations.
275
What was the importance of the Ghost Dance?
Spreading quickly through the reservations, it worried the Indian agents. They became even more worried when some Indians danced with rifles held above their heads. US President Harrison ordered the army into the reservations to take control. Chief Sitting Bull, one of the chiefs supporting the ghost dance, was killed in a botched attempt to arrest him by one of his own tribe, shot dead by a Sioux policeman.
276
What happened in the days before the Battle of Wounded Knee?
Sitting Bull's followers fled south to join the band of Big Foot in the Cheyenne River Reservation. However, the US army were moving to arrest Big Foot, too, who had fled with his band of 120 men and 230 women and children. Hampered by deep December snows and suffering from pneumonia, the Indians were in a bad way when the 7th Cavalry caught up with them.
277
Describe the events of the Battle of Wounded Knee.
The Indians were taken under armed guard to Wounded Knee Creek, where the army began to disarm them. At least one Sioux warrior resisted, and others began to dance. In the general confusion, a shot rang out and the 7th cavalry opened fire with repeating rifles and Hotchkiss cannon. The Indians fought back with what weapons they had, but didn't stand a chance- women, men and children were torn to pieces.
