The impact of war on Britain Flashcards
(185 cards)
1
Q
What were Zeppelins?
A
They were airships filled with hydrogen which could fly at 15,000 feet, well above British fighter planes which could only fly at a maximum of 13,000 feet. From 1915-16, there were 51 Zeppelin raids, the main target of which was London.
2
Q
What about Zeppelins made the British public very angry?
A
The apparent lack of defence against them. The first Zeppelin wasn’t shot down until 3rd September 1917. The successful pilot was awarded the Victoria Cross.
3
Q
Why did the Zeppelin attacks stop in 1917?
A
Because of increased British defences, including the use of spotlights, which meant that the Zeppelins could be easily spotted.
4
Q
Why did the bombing raids of 1916-17 have such a dramatic effect on British civilians?
A
They had not experienced anything like it before, and the loss of life was high due to there being no shelters.
5
Q
What did the public outcry against the Gotha raids do?
A
It forced the government to bring into operation better searchlights, balloons and anti-aircraft guns. As a result, 7 out of 19 Gotha bombers were shot down in the raid of 19 May 1918. The Germans couldn’t afford such losses and called off further raids.
6
Q
Why were the German bombing raids far more serious in the Second World War than in the first?
A
Because advances in technology meant that more powerful bombers and more destructive bombs could be used.
7
Q
What were usually the targets of the heavy bombing in the autumn of 1940 to May 1941?
A
Military or industrial centres.
8
Q
What was the primary target of the German bombing attacks?
A
London, which was bombed every night from 7th September to 2nd November 1940, especially the docks and factories of the East End. Some 12,500 people died in December 1940.
9
Q
Where were people in November 1940 so scared that they fled from the city each night, sleeping with relatives or in open fields in nearby countryside, and why?
A
Coventry, because it was badly hit with a series of raids from Germans, with incendiary bombs used to increase the damage caused.
10
Q
What was the V1?
A
A flying bomb powered by a rocket engine. It was nicknamed the ‘doodlebug’ because of the noise it made. It flew towards the target area and then came down wherever it ran out of fuel. People on the ground could hear the engine cut out and then a shriek as the bomb hurtled to the ground.
11
Q
What was the V2?
A
It was a more serious threat than the V1 because it was so fast, flying at supersonic speed, and it couldn’t be shot down or seen. It was the first guided missile.
12
Q
What were the effects of bombing on industry?
A
Bombing of industrial targets was generally not effective because precision was needed. Some factories were isolated, unlike housing estates, and they could be easily missed at night. Most factories were able to resume production within two to three days of being hit.
13
Q
As only 27% of people used private (Anderson/Morrison) shelters, what did the rest use?
A
Public shelters or ‘self-chosen’ shelters like the London underground.
14
Q
Surveys suggest that only 40% of Londoners regularly took shelter. What does this account for?
A
High casualty rates; by June 1941, 43,000 civilians had been killed and 1.5 million homes lost due to German bombing raids.
15
Q
On 10th September, a bomb hit Buckingham Palace while the king and queen were at Windsor. What were the public’s reactions?
A
They were impressed with the attitude of the Royal Family, who insisted on staying at Buckingham Palace throughout the war.
16
Q
What was ‘Blitz Spirit’?
A
The bombing, not just a failure, had the opposite effect it was going for. It made the British people even more determined to stand up to Hitler. People seemed cheerful in the face of great hardships and determined to get on with everyday life. The underground was full of people singing as they sheltered from bombs.
17
Q
Not all people felt ‘Blitz Spirit’. How was this hidden from the public eye?
A
Censorship and propaganda was very effective in playing down the negative (and quite understandable) reactions of individuals or groups who were badly affected by the bombings.
18
Q
What did the Air Raid Precautions act of 1937 give local authorities the responsibility to do?
A
Build air raid shelters, provide gas masks, and recruit and train volunteer wardens.
19
Q
By the end of the second world war, 1.4 million citizens had volunteered to become ARP wardens, to help defend the Home Front from the horrors of German bombing. What did ARP Wardens do?
A
Built air raid shelters, distributed 38 million gas masks to the public, enforced blackout regulations, kept order in air raid shelters and at bomb sites, and reported fires and unexploded bombs.
20
Q
How much were full-time ARP wardens paid?
A
£3 per week for men, £2 for women. Most, however, were unpaid, part-time volunteers.
21
Q
At first, what was each ARP warden issued (from 1940 onwards they had uniforms)?
A
A tin helmet, a gas mask, a whistle and (for gas attacks) a rattle.
22
Q
At first, ARP wardens were figures of derision, enforcing regulations nobody deemed necessary. How did this change?
A
During the Blitz, they became heroes; by 1945 almost 7000 Civil defence staff had been killed on duty.
23
Q
Give examples of wartime emergency services other than the ARP wardens.
A
The Auxiliary Ambulance Service, whose youngest member was 16yr old Ennis Smith. The Auxiliary Fire Service, mostly unpaid volunteers and also heroes of the Blitz. Reserve policemen and policewomen.
24
Q
By 1940, there was serious danger of a German invasion. What did Anthony Eden, the Secretary of State for War, do?
A
He launched an appeal for a volunteer military force to help defend the country. In 24hrs, 250,000 men had volunteered to join Eden’s Local Defence Volunteers. Within 6 weeks, 1.5 million men had volunteered.
25
Describe the development of the LDV, later the 'Home Guard'.
An unpaid, part-time force, there were at first no uniforms and few weapons. The public were asked to volunteer whatever weapons they had and within months 20,000 weapons were offered. Volunteers had to be between 17-65yrs old and unfit for regular military service, because they were medically unfit, in a reserved occupation or too old. As a result, the LDV was soon dubbed 'Dad's Army'. In July 1940, Churchill renamed them the Home Guard. Weapons started arriving from the USA and Canada, which were issued, military ranks organised, and a code of discipline issued. By June 1941, 1.6 million men were under arms in the Home Guard, and by 1943 they had their own anti-aircraft batteries, some credited with destroying German aircraft and V1 flying bombs.
26
What is propaganda?
Information which is used to promote certain ideas or attitudes. The information used may be lies, but this isn't always the case. It may be limited, or one-sided information. Sometimes, propaganda is used by governments to get public support for their actions, and sometimes it is spread by private individuals/organisations such as newspapers, which have strong views of their own and want to spread them.
27
During the First and Second World Wars, how did the British government use propaganda to influence civilian attitudes to war?
Government propaganda: encouraged people to volunteer/fight/help in essential industries, in order to boost the war effort, masked the scale of casualties and the defeats they suffered to stop people becoming discouraged, and tried to keep morale high during hard times which occurred due to bombing, rationing and evacuation.
28
Traditional media for propaganda included newspapers and poster. However, what else was exploited for propaganda?
New media developed in the 20th century, so things such as cinema films and the radio were used.
29
Why were hate campaigns used in the world wars?
To persuade people that they were fighting for a just cause, the government stirred up hatred against the enemy.
30
How were hate campaigns used in WW1?
The government produced many posters that showed acts of brutality or atrocities supposedly carried out by the enemy. These were often exaggerations or outright lies. Government propagandists started hostile rumours about the enemy; for example, they invented the rumour that Germans sent corpses to a factory that then used the human fat to make soap, candles and boot polish.
31
What is censorship?
Another way the WW1&2 impacted upon civilian lives, it is 'limiting the flow of information to the public'. It may involve preventing the release of any information about something,or limiting information/keeping some information completely secret.
32
During WW1&2, how did the British government control information about the war which could reach the public?
They controlled soldier's letters, newspapers and cinemas, films in the cinema, and (WW2 only) radio broadcasts.
33
Sometimes, the government directly censored information. How were private letters censored?
During WW2, the British government employed about 10,000 people to censor information going through the Royal Mail. They'd use scissors to cut out censored parts.
34
Sometimes, the government directly censored information. How were letters sent home by soldiers censored?
All were read, and some information was taken out. For example, anything about casualties, troop positions or intended attacks was deleted.
35
Sometimes, the government directly censored information. How were newspapers censored?
Newspapers which printed war information which the government didn't approve of could be shut down.
36
Give an example of the government indirectly censoring information.
Britain entered WW1 in August 1914, but no British journalists were allowed to be at the war front until November 1916.
37
Sometimes the government urged the public to 'censor' themselves. Give an example of this.
The public could accidentally give away information which could be helpful to the enemy, such as information about troop movements and factory production. So, during WW2, for example, there was a campaign to persuade the public to be careful about what they told others, e.g. "You never know who's listening!"
38
When was the Defence of the Realm Act passed?
In August 1914.
39
How did the Defence of the Realm Act have an immediate effect upon civilians?
The only news about the war which newspapers could publish was news issued by the British Army headquarters or by government departments; any newspaper using unauthorised information could be taken to court. Police sometimes threatened to confiscate the presses of printers who published anti-war papers. Pacifist newspapers such as 'The Call' and the 'Tribunal' were forced to close several times in 1917-18.
40
Why did officials in the armed forces have to censor letters written by soldiers from the battlefront?
Because the government felt that they just couldn't afford to let the British public know the full extent of bad news, or to risk information falling into enemy hands.
41
Why did propaganda concentrate on criticising Germany and encouraging men to join the armed forces?
Because the government was concerned that people wouldn't support the war effort if they didn't think it a just effort which could be won in a reasonable time.
42
Give an example of the British government spreading widely exaggerated stories about how evil the Germans were.
It was widely believed in Britain by the end of 1914 that the German armies in Belgium were bayoneting babies and murdering innocent civilians.
43
What did the fact that the campaign to turn the British against the Germans was incredibly successful mean?
Germans living in Britain were attacked, and shops with German names were looted.
44
The government used posters for a range of reasons. How were they used in 1917 when German U-boat attacks were seriously reducing Britain's imports?
Posters urged the public to cut down, especially on food, to avoid wastage.
45
The government used posters for a range of reasons. What were 'conscience posters'?
Posters designed to shame young men into joining up.
46
Until 1916, censorship and propaganda were very successful. In general, civilians hated the Germans, supported the war and believed they'd soon win, men joining the armed forces in their droves. Why did this change after 1916?
Most weren't against the war after 1916, but they were more critical, e.g. angering over the tactics of generals on the Western Front. This was due to soldiers bringing home news of hardships on the Western Front, Casualties at the Battle of the Somme in 1916 hardening attitudes (there were 58,000 on the first day alone!), and a stalemate on the Western Front meaning that the war dragged on.
47
The Ministry of Information created the Crown Film Unit in 1940. What was this?
It was set up to make official propaganda films with the intention of boosting the war effort and keeping up morale. It made short, ten-minute documentaries such as 'Fires Were Started' and 'Listen to Britain'.
48
What purpose did entertainment perform for civilians in WW2?
The radio was used to entertain factory workers, for dance programmes and fro humour. Humour was an important method of keeping up people's morale, especially humour that poked fun at the home front and government rules and regulations.
49
Give an example of radio humour being used to keep up morale in WW2.
"It's That Man Again" gained a huge following, and starred Tommy Handley, who played the Minister at the Ministry of Aggravation and Mysteries- a dig at the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries.
50
How was the cinema used to keep up morale in WW2?
It was a useful escape from the harsh realities of life. Women, for example, needed to escape from thoughts of absent loved ones. Hollywood movies were shown because they generally provided glamour and romance.
51
What did the Entertainment National Service Association (ENSA) do?
It provided live entertainment for both the armed forces and the civilian population, including people at work and families sheltering from the Blitz in the London Underground.
52
When was the Defence of the Realm Act (DORA) passed?
1914
53
Name five things people weren't able to do because of DORA.
Talk about military affairs in public places, spread rumours about military affairs, light bonfires or fireworks, buy binoculars, buy whisky or brandy in a railway refreshment room, ring church bells, fly a kite, use invisible ink when writing abroad, melt down gold/silver, trespass on railways or bridges, buy a round of drinks in a pub, join the army if you were in certain 'reserved' occupations such as mining or farming, and strikes were made illegal in certain industries.
54
Why were people not allowed to join the army in WW1 if you were in certain 'reserved' occupations such as mining or farming?
Because their skills were needed at home in Britain
55
What were some of the measures the government introduced through DORA that weren't just 'things people were not allowed to do'?
Introducing 'British Summer Time' (putting the clocks forward one hour) to provide more daylight for work in the evening, controlling the consumption of alcohol (to try and reduce absenteeism from work due to drunkenness) by cutting down on pub opening hours and giving instructions for beer to be watered down, and appointing special constables to help maintain law and order.
56
At first, the government was reluctant to force men to join the armed forces in WW1. Why did conscription become necessary?
The number of volunteers began to slow down during the course of 1915 due to news of the conditions at the war front and the high numbers of casualties, which were published in local newspapers. Moreover, conscription became necessary because Britain was unable to cover the heavy losses incurred, especially on the Western Front.
57
When did the government in WW1 introduce the national registration of single men (this was later extended to married men), and why?
As early as August 1915. This gave the government a list of men who could be called upon to fight if necessary.
58
When was the Military Service Act made, and what did it do?
It was made in January 1916, and made all unmarried men aged 18-41 liable for service in the armed forces. In May 1916, the act was extended to include married men. From 1916 to 1918, a total of 3.5 million men were conscripted into the armed forces.
59
What were the four exceptions to the Military Service Act (1916)?
Men in reserved occupations such as mining, men with ill health, men with family responsibilities e.g. where someone else in the family would suffer if they were conscripted, and conscientious objectors.
60
What was the Emergency Powers act (WW2), and when was it introduced
It was introduced by the government in May 1940 after the British Army had been forced to retreat from Dunkirk and there was a real threat of invasion. It gave the desperate British government almost unlimited powers over people and property; from then on, civilians could be required to do anything and be sent anywhere.
61
In April 1939, as war became increasingly likely, the government passed the Military Training Act. What did this do?
It conscripted all men aged 20-21 for six months compulsory military training.
62
What was the National Service act (WW2) and when was it passed?
Passed in September 1939, when war broke out, the limited measure of the Military Training Act was extended, making all men aged 18-41 liable for conscription.
63
How many men from reserved occupations had been excused conscription by the end of 1940?
200,000
64
By the end of 1940, how many men had volunteered or asked for their call-up to be speeded up?
Over 1 million
65
In December 1941, how was conscription extended?
To men 18-51, and women 20-30
66
From December 1943, some conscripted men were not sent to fight in the war. Where were they sent instead?
Into jobs vital to the war effort, like coal mining. Men sent into these jobs were sometimes known as 'Bevin Boys', in reference to Ernest Bevin, the Minister of Labour and National Service.
67
After WW2, conscription was scaled down, but not abolished. What were all men 17-21 still required to do?
Complete 18 months of National Service in the Armed forces, and serve in the Army reserve for a further four years.
68
When did conscription finally end in Britain?
1960
69
One group of civilians who objected to conscription by the government during both wars were 'conscientious objectors'. Describe 'conscientious objectors'.
These were people who refused to fight because of moral grounds, such as pacifists, or religious beliefs, such as Quakers.
70
Some 16,100 men, conscientious objectors, refused to fight in WW1. What happened to them?
They had to appear before a military tribunal to prove that the deserved to be exempt from military service. Of these, around 9,500 helped the war effort by working behind the lines in non-fighting roles or by doing essential work connected with the armed forces. Those remaining were sent to prison camps where they were often treated with great cruelty.
71
Conscientious objectors sent to prison camps in WW1 were often treated with great cruelty. Give an example.
At a Home Office Works Centre in Dyce, the only form of accommodation was tents, and conditions were so cold and harsh that many caught pneumonia and many died. At another centre, the prisoners' job was to handle the rotting corpses of animals. In total, ten died in prison, 63 died soon after their release, and 31 suffered a mental breakdown because of their experiences at that centre.
72
In WW2, around 60,000 men and women claimed exemption from military service. Again, they had to justify their stance to a tribunal. What happened to them then?
Around 3000 were given full exemption. Around 18,000 claims were dismissed as false, and the men obliged to serve or be imprisoned; around 6000 went to prison. The rest, almost 40,000, were given non-combatant jobs.
73
In WW2, almost 40,000 of the 60,000 who claimed exemption from military service were given non-combatant jobs. Give an example of this.
Almost 7,000 joined the Non-Combatant Corps, set up in 1940. Members were put to work in military work jobs not directly involved in fighting. Of these 465 volunteered for bomb disposal. Other conscientious objectors were required to work in jobs such as farming, mining, fire-fighting or ambulance work.
74
With DORA in WW1, the government could take control of key industries and allocate labour to key industries. How did they make full use of these powers?
The railway network was taken over, the government making a unified system to ensure that transport was more efficient (in 1914 there were 120 different railroad companies). Coal mines were taken over; miners were paid a national minimum wage, set by the government, and production rose to an all-time high of 262 million tonnes per year. Shipyards were taken over to ensure that enough vessels were being built to replace those sunk by German U-boats.
75
Why was the Ministry of Labour set up, and what did it do?
It was set up to organise the nation's labour force. It introduced directed labour force, which gave the government the power to direct workers, men and women both, into the jobs which the country most needed them to do.
76
In WW2, workers had to accept jobs which the war effort needed doing. For the first time, women were conscripted into the labour force. Describe this.
From Spring 1941, all women in Britain aged 18-60 had to be registered, and their family occupations were recorded. Each was interviewed and required to choose from a range of jobs.
77
What did the government do even before WW2 broke out to reorganise industry?
They built 'shadow factories' next to motor car plants. When war came, these were put into military production , with managers and workers drawn from the motor industry. This harnessed companies such as Austin, Ford and Morris to the war effort.
78
When and why was the Control of Employment Act passed, and what did it do?
It was passed in 1939 to ensure that there were enough workers in essential industries, such as engineering and shipbuilding. It gave the government control over hiring and firing of workers in key industries. It also enabled them to employ semi-skilled and unskilled workers where there were not enough skilled workers.
79
In WW2, employers couldn't just produce what they wanted; they had to produce what was needed. What happened as a result of this?
In 1940, the Limitation of Supplies Order cut the output of consumer goods like toys and jewellery to 2/3 of the 1939 level. From 1940-43, yearly production increased fro tanks from 1,400 to 7,500 and warplanes from 15,000 to 26,000
80
During WW1, women were recruited into the armed forces for the first time. At first, what were they used as?
Volunteers in Voluntary Aid Detachments, where they worked behind the lines as nurses.
81
From 1917-18, women were recruited as full-time members of the armed forces. What was the WAAC?
The Women's Auxiliary Army corps was set up in January 1917, and took over many of the office jobs in the army, which freed the men to fight.
82
From 1917-18, women were recruited as full-time members of the armed forces. What was the WRNS?
The Women's Royal Navy Service was set up in 1917. Women did not go to sea or fight; as with the army, they took over office duties.
83
From 1917-18, women were recruited as full-time members of the armed forces. What was the WRAF?
The Women's Royal Air Force was set up in 1918. Women did not fly the planes or fight, but instead carried out routine office and domestic duties.
84
In WW1, by early 1916, Britain had up to 2 million workers fewer than were necessary to keep the country going. This was due to the number of men who had volunteered for the armed forces between 1914-16. What did this mean?
It meant that more and more women were employed to fo 'male' jobs.
85
In WW1, women were soon employed in place of male clerks. By the end of the war, how many women had replaced men in office jobs?
Half a million.
86
Though by 1916, the labour shortages were so great that they had no option, at first, employers and unions resisted the employment of women in manufacturing industries. Why was this?
Employers believed they did not have the skills, and unions believed that employing women would bring down wages.
87
By 1918, how many women were working in engineering (especially in munitions work)?
Almost 800,000
88
Other than engineering, give at least three examples of jobs in which women were employed in WW1 which were previously regarded as exclusively for men.
In transport as paid bus conductors and drivers, grave diggers, postal workers, fire fighters, chimney sweeps, blacksmiths and welders. There was a Women's Voluntary Police service in most major cities.
89
In WW2, from late 1941, where were women sent to work in (unless they were pregnant or had small children)?
Industry or the auxiliary army services. By 1943, 90% of single women and 80% of married women were doing work of national importance. As during WW1, the women did the routine office, driving and domestic duties and freed the men to do combat duty.
90
The women's armed services in WW2 included the WRNS, the WAAF (Women's Auxiliary Air Force), and the ATS (Auxiliary Territorial Service). The WRNS was the most popular service followed by the WAAF; why was this?
Many women thought that the uniforms of these services were more exciting than the dull khaki of the ATS. By 1944 there were 450,000 women in these services, with 212,000 in the ATS
91
Despite not being involved in combat in WW2, women did hard and often dangerous jobs too. What did they do that was hard and/or dangerous?
They worked as mechanics, welders, pilots, carpenters and even gunners on anti-aircraft guns, though not allowed to fire said guns. A total of 335 women were killed in the ATS and another 300 wounded.
92
By September 1943, how many women were in paid work, and how did this compare to before the war?
Nearly 8 million, which was 3 million more than when the war started.
93
By September 1943, how many women were working in voluntary services?
1 million
94
By 1943, what percentage of jobs did women occupy in factories?
57%
95
The Women's Land Army was revived in 1939. How many women volunteered for work, and what was their experience?
80,000 women volunteered. They had no choice where they worked and were often billeted in remote areas in very basic conditions. They proved themselves more than capable of coping with tough jobs and handled animals particularly well.
96
By September 1943,, more than one million had joined the WVS. They fulfilled a variety of roles; name some of these and how many fulfilled them.
180,000 in civil defence, 47,000 in fire services, 130,000 serving as messengers and dispatch riders for the post office. Many others ran nurseries and hostels, drove ambulances or worked in medical centres, first aid posts, mobile canteens and rest centres.
97
Why was food finally rationed in 1917 despite government being reluctant to bring in compulsory rationing (at first, they asked people to voluntarily limit their food)?
By 1917, the Germans were using their submarines to stop supply ships from getting through to Britain from America and the continent. In April 1917, Britain had only six weeks' worth of wheat stores left. Food was so scarce that prices rose sharply and queues to buy food grew.
98
What were the achievements of rationing in WW1+2?
It was a fair system that ensured that the poorer people were adequately fed with generally healthy food. It helped to unite people as everyone had the same rations. The quality of rationed clothes was guaranteed by the government's utility mark.
99
What were the flaws with rationing in WW1+2?
The rich could buy extra rations on the black market. Very large families with several ration books were better off than small families with one or no children. Food supplies were more plentiful in certain areas, e.g. vegetables in greater supply in rural areas, and pork+bacon weren't rationed in Northern Ireland.
100
How did the government control food supplies other than with rationing in WW2?
The 'Dig For Victory' campaign encouraged people to grow vegetables and keep chickens and pigs. Private gardens were turned into vegetable patches. playing fields and railway embankments were ploughed up. There were campaigns to avoid waste, e.g. boy scouts and girl guides collected scraps for pigs.
101
What were the reasons for evacuation (which was brought in for WW2)?
The British government believed that the Germans would bomb British towns and cities in order to destroy the morale of the people and force Britain to surrender. Therefore evacuation measures were put in place to protect civilians from bombings and gas attacks. Children were to be protected by being moved from the likeliest targets, the cities, to the countryside where it was thought they would be safe.
102
The first evacuation was announced on August 31st 1939, and the evacuation began on September 1st. Many city schools were closed; what did this mean for teachers?
Teachers went with children to the countryside to carry on teaching them.
103
Why was it that many children were back in cities by Christmas 1939?
Homesickness, and the 'Phoney War' when little fighting took place and there were no enemy bombing raids.
104
Why was there a second wave of evacuation from the cities in 1940?
Because German bombers began Blitzing London.
105
Why was there a further wave of evacuations in 1944?
The Germans used there V1 flying bombs and V2 missiles to bomb Britain.
106
Give three examples of how WW2 left Britain in a sorry economic state.
Britain: lost 500,000 homes through bombing, infrastructure like railway tracks, trains and roads all worn out, factories converted to producing weapons not consumer goods, exports which had shrunk to tiny figures, had lost 1000 million of overseas investments, and owed 3300 million in debt to other companies.
107
What was the Anglo-American loan (1946)?
The end of Lend lease gave Britain a problem, as it couldn't return the goods or do without the goods already in transit. $5 billion loan from the US and Canada to ensure that it could pay for goods it needed without running out of money. Britain had 60 years to pay it off, and the interest was only 2%. Even so, it made Britain even further in debt.
108
What was Lend Lease?
A scheme under which the USA gave Britain goods, such s aircraft and ships, for the war effort. In theory, they would return the gifts after the war. In September 1945, after the war ended, the USA almost ended Lend Lease.
109
What was Marshall Aid?
As even more aid was needed after the Anglo-American loan, in 1947, the USA was so worried that a bankrupt Europe might fall to a series of Communist revolutions, that it announced the Marshal Plan. This was a scheme to prop up Europe with loans, machinery, raw materials and fuel. In all, $13 billion of aid went to Europe. $3 billion went to Britain, the most for any single country.
110
During the period of austerity after WW2, the government decided that there were two essential steps on the road to recovery: exports and full employment. Describe the steps they took with exports.
Britain had to earn money to pay back its loans, so it had to start selling more goods overbroad. The government used a number of measures to boost exports. For example: car manufacturers were only allowed to buy steel if they made cars for export, and the pound was devalued to $2.80 instead of $4. This meant that people abroad paid less for British goods.
111
During the period of austerity after WW2, the government decided that there were two essential steps on the road to recovery: exports and full employment. Describe the steps they took towards full employment.
Only by producing things at home would Britain keep down here imports and make things to export. The government used a number of measures to ensure full employment. For example, it used building licenses to make sure that all new factories were located where the country needed jobs.
112
During the period of austerity after WW2, the government decided that there were two essential steps on the road to recovery: exports and full employment. What was the effect of their actions towards ensuring full employment?
It worked, gradually. By 1950, exports were 77% higher than 1946, and there was full employment.
113
Why was one of the government's strategies for recovery after WW2 nationalisation?
During the war, the government had taken key industries out of private control so that they could be organised to benefit the war effort. As many of these industries were very run down by 194, the Labour government decided that the best way to regenerate these industries was to keep them in public hands. Consequently, the coal, gas, steel, electricity and transport industries were nationalised.
114
Give examples of how nationalisation after WW2 was a useful strategy at the time.
The 500 separately owned, private power stations could now be harnessed to the national grid instead of competing against each other. The National Coal Board could settle the ongoing disputes between the miners' unions and the countless mine owners and concentrate efforts upon production. A single Transport commission could make overall plans for the nationalised road, rail, air and sea transport providers.
115
How was nationalisation after WW2 a success for Britain's most out-of-date industries, like coal and the railways?
Government money could be invested in modernising these industries without the necessity of making a profit. Working conditions for miners also improved. So, opposition to nationalisation was mild, and most remained nationalised until the 1980s.
116
Why was nationalisation after WW2 less popular with industries like iron and steel than others?
Because they were already making profits
117
Why did rationing continue after WW2?
Domestic supplies of food and other consumer goods were still limited and Britain could not afford a rapid increase in imported goods.
118
How was the period from 1945-54 a time of much wider social austerity than just rationing?
Bomb sites lingered for years, undeveloped. Britain still had conscription. Even when food wasn't rationed, it was still in short supply and people had to queue in shops to get popular goods before they ran out. Material for clothes was in short supply, so styles remained severe and drab.
119
What was 'jingoism', and why was it one of the reasons the British public supported the Boer War?
It was an attitude whereby the British public: took great pride in Britain's achievements, expected the government to protect Britain's interests abroad, wanted strong and efficient military forces, supported an aggressive foreign policy and showed an eagerness for war.
120
What was the timeframe for the Boer War?
1899-1902
121
In the Boer war (1899-1902), Britain defeated Dutch settlers known as Boers, rising against the Empire, in two small states in the south of Africa. Why did the public expect a quick victory?
Boer troops were only made up of 35,000 farmers, not professionals like the British army.
122
What did Britain lose in the Boer war, though gaining an eventual victory?
They suffered 3 defeats in December 1899 (in Stormberg, Magersfontein and Colenso), which the British press called 'Black Week'. Another defeat followed at Spioenkop in January 1900. increased press reporting of foreign wars made problems like these impossible to hide. Eventually, Britain deployed 450,000 soldiers and spent over £200 million on the war. Despite the eventual victory, well over 5000 died in action and a further 16,000 died of disease.
123
What were the two main military reforms that came about as a result of Britain's poor performance in the Boer war?
In 1905, the Royal Navy began work on a powerful new battleship to reassert British control of the seas, the Dreadnought, which was launched in 1906. In 1905, Lord Haldane became Secretary of State for War. He introduced a series of changes called the Haldane Reforms. The two main ones were: the creation of a rapid response force, later called the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), which could respond to crises abroad, and the Territorial Force; trained, but part-time, soldiers who supported regular troops.
124
Why did concern about Britain's performance in the Boer war have much more far-reaching effects?
Because blame eventually fell on the quality of army recruits.
125
Why was the Committee on Physical Deterioration set up after the Boer War in 1903?
Social reformers such as Charles Booth in London and Seebohm Rowntree in York had shown widespread poverty amongst Britain's working class, from which most soldiers were recruited. Then, army reports showed that around 40% of army recruits for the Boer War were unfit for service, worst in the cities where in some 9/10 of recruits were rejected. fearing that Britain's military and economic efficiency were being undermines by the condition of the poor, the government set up an investigation by senior military and political figures, which was the Committee on Physical Deterioration
126
The Committee on Physical Deterioration reported in 1904, calling for many new social reforms to tackle poverty and improve the quality of Britain's army recruits. In particular, what did it suggest?
Nurseries for the children of working mothers, free school meals for the very poor, medical inspections in schools, training in cooking and mothering skills, an end to sales of tobacco to children, an end to overcrowded slum housing and an end to smoke pollution in towns.
127
What did people realise due to the Boer War?
Britain was losing its military lead in the world, and that if the urban poor were unfit to fight, they were probably also unfit to work. Without a good workforce Britain could also lose its place in the lead of economic progress.
128
Which reforms to help children and families took place in 1906?
Local authorities were allowed to provide free school meals for children, part-funded by the government, so that the poor were better fed. The Workers Compensation Act gave compensation for workers injured at work, making it less likely that injury would condemn them and their families to poverty and ill-health,
129
When did school medical inspections begin?
1907
130
The 1908 Children and Young Person's Act was a set of regulations which became known as the Children's Charter. Give examples of what it did.
It: made it a crime to neglect children and sell children cigarettes, alcohol or fireworks, and set up separate juvenile courts for children so that they were not treated as harshly as adults, and borstals, which were prisons which provided training for young children.
131
Which reforms to help children and families took place in 1909?
Labour exchanges were set up to help unemployed people find work. By 1914, they were placing 3,000 people in jobs each day. The Trade Boards Act made it possible to prosecute employers who paid less than the board's minimum wage in 'sweated industries', which were workplaces with long hours and low play. A tax allowance for children was introduced, so workers with children paid less tax.
132
When was the Education (Choice of Employment) Act passed, and what did it do?
It was passed in 1910, and it enabled local authorities to give careers advice to help children get work. From 1911, grants were given by central government to help local authorities with the cost.
133
When was the National Insurance Act passed, and what did it do?
Passed in 1911, it was introduced to help families during times of hardship. It provided: medical insurance to prevent illness causing poverty. Workers paid a set amount of money per week, and in return got free medical treatment and sick pay of 9 shillings per week for 26 weeks. Unemployment insurance was also provided to prevent loss of work causing poverty. Again, they paid a set amount per week, and in return, they got unemployment pay of 7 shilling a week for up to 15 weeks.
134
What was the Education Act of 1918?
It required council schools to provide education up to the age of 14
135
What was the Housing and Town Planning Act of 1919?
This gave councils subsidies to help provide new council houses.
136
What was the Unemployment Insurance Act of 1920?
This extended the 1911 Act, raising the benefit paid and insuring an extra 11 million million workers against unemployment, so that 75% of workers were now covered.
137
What did the Beveridge Report of 1942 recommend?
It recommended that the government should set up a system which protected people: from the 'Five Giant Evils': Want, Ignorance, Disease, Squalor and Idleness, throughout their lives 'from the cradle to the grave', and whoever they were, whatever their income.
138
From 1944, a series of reforms were introduced to implement the Beveridge report. Together, what did these reforms become known as?
The 'Welfare State'.
139
What was the 'attack' to fix the 'ignorance' section of the Beveridge report?
The 1944 Education Act was brought in by Churchill's wartime government. It applied to England and Wales and abolished the idea of elementary education ending at 14. Instead, it said that primary schools would take children until age 11, providing milk, meals and dental checks. Then, there would be secondary education for all, with the leaving age raised to 15 as soon as possible; this was done in 1947.
140
What was the 'attack' to fix the 'want' section of the Beveridge report?
The 1946 National Insurance Act made insurance compulsory for everyone of working age except married women. The scheme started in 1948. In return for a weekly contribution, there were: sickness and unemployment benefits, retirement and widows' pensions, maternity benefits and a funeral grant.
141
What supplemented the 1946 National Insurance Act?
The payment of Family Allowance, which had started in 1946. 5 shillings per weeks was paid to parents for every child after the first one, until the age of 16.
142
What was the 'attack' to fix the 'disease' section of the Beveridge report?
The 1946 National Health Service Act was introduced by Aneurin Bevan, the Minister of Health. Under this Act, everyone was entitled to free: medical care by GPs and hospitals, dental care and eye treatment. It, like the National Insurance Act, started in 1948, but was financed from national taxation not insurance.
143
What was the 'attack' to fix the 'squalor' section of the Beveridge report?
There were three solutions -adopted by the Labour government- to the serious housing shortages during WW2: Homeless families housed in emergency accommodation, a campaign of council house building and the 1946 New Towns Act, which provided government money for a series of new towns to be built near London and other cities, reducing crowding in older urban centres.
144
What was the 'attack' to fix the 'idleness' section of the Beveridge report?
A series of schemes to boost jobs
145
Why were women's rights slow to develop at the start of the 20th century?
Because many of the views which held women back in Victorian times were still very powerful in 1900.
146
At the start of the 20th century, what was the role of women?
Some women in poor families had to work to make ends meet, but in middle class homes the primary role of women was generally restricted to the house. Girls were prepared for domestic duties until they could marry a man who would provide for them.
147
At the start of the 20th century, what was education like for women?
Most girls were held back by their schooling, their education -generally reading, writing, needlework, cookery and some arithmetic- preparing them for a domestic role.
148
At the start of the 20th century, how did attitudes to women limit them socially?
Single women were expected not to go out without an older escort or chaperone, and not to smoke or drink. They were also expected to dress in a conservative way, wearing long dresses or skirts, and to have long hair, tied back. Makeup was frowned upon.
149
At the start of the 20th century, why were job opportunities for unmarried women limited to doing domestic work as maids/cooks in wealthy households or working as shop assistants, telephonists, typists and nurses?
Because better paid professions such as the law, medicine and accountancy were generally closed to women who, in any case, lacked the professional qualifications to enter these professions
150
The First World War did indeed bring changes to the position of women in British society. However, what is it important to remember?
Attitudes towards women were already slowly changing even before WW1 started in 1914.
151
Before WW1, what had developments in education for women been?
1872: the Girls' Public Day School Trust was set up to raise money for girls' grammar schools. 1886: Oxford University raised the status of higher education for women by the foundation of St Hugh's and St Hilda's colleges there. 1904: Hertha Ayrton became the first woman to present a paper to the Royal Society, Britain's most prestigious academy of science.
152
Before WW1, what had developments in work for women been?
1902: Rosa Lewis bought her own hotel & Beatrix published her first book. Beatrix went on to become both a renowned author and a leading breeder of livestock. Gertrude Jekyll was probably the country's foremost garden designer by the 1900s. 1903: Mary Howarth became the editor of a new newspaper, the Daily Mirror, which was aimed particularly at women.
153
Before WW1, what had developments in medicine for women been?
1865: Elizabeth Garrett Anderson overcame great difficulties to qualify as the first female doctor. There were 477 by 1911. 1907: the First Aid Nursing Yeomanry was set up to nurse soldiers at field hospitals in wartime.
154
Before WW1, what had developments in local politics for women been?
1907: The Qualification of Women Act allowed women to be elected to county and town councils and as town mayors. 1908: Elizabeth Garrett Anderson became the first woman to be elected mayor, at Aldeburgh in Suffolk
155
Before WW1, what had developments in independence for women been?
1903: Dorothy Levitt became the first British woman to take part in an organised motor car race. 1908: Dolly Shepherd, a parachute stunt artist, made the first mid-air rescue of a fellow parachutist in difficulty.
156
During WW1, what was the role of women in munitions work?
By the end of WW1, around 60% of all workers in the munitions industry were women. Almost 800,000 women worked in engineering, which was very hard work.
157
During WW1, almost 800,000 women worked in engineering. This work was hard; what were their working hours?
They worked 12-hour shifts, seven days a week, packing explosives and cordite charges into bullets and shells.
158
During WW1, almost 800,000 women worked in engineering. Why did some earn the nickname 'canaries'?
Because sometimes they developed lead poisoning or illnesses from the chemicals, which caused their hair to fall out and turned their skin yellow.
159
During WW1, almost 800,000 women worked in engineering. Why was this dangerous?
Some workers were even killed when munitions factories blew up. In 1917, a fire in Silvertown munitions works in East London caused an explosion that killed 69 people and injured 400.
160
During WW1, almost 800,000 women worked in engineering. How many women, roughly, replaced men in employment, and how did the percentage of women in work rise?
Overall, from 1914-18, about 2 million women replaced men in employment and the percentage of women on work rose from 24 to 37%
161
What did full wage packets mean for women in WW1?
They had money to spend; they now smoked, drank in pubs, went on bicycle trips, to the cinema, and on shopping trips in town unsupervised.
162
Opinions on independent women who didn't need no man varied. What were these opinions?
Some people were scandalised, and some troops returning home from France were amazed. But everybody noticed.
163
In 1918, just before the end of the war, the Representation of the People Act was passed in recognition of the role women had played during the war. What did this give to women?
Women property owners aged 30 and over got the vote, along with all men over the age of 21, and those 19-21 who had been in active service during the war.
164
When did women get equal voting rights to men?
In 1928, women aged 21 and over were give the right to vote.
165
When did the first female MP take her seat in Parliament, and who was she?
Nancy Astor in 1919
166
Who were the 'flappers'?
They were the most extreme example of social change, young women who challenged old ideas about fashion to express their independence in the 1920s. They wore more revealing clothes, with short skirts, used a lot of makeup and had shorter hair. They drank and smoked in public and adopted American dances like the Charleston.
167
When the war ended in 1918, what happened for women in terms of jobs?
Most women wanted to keep their jobs, but were expected to give up their war work for the returning men. It was argued that women who stayed in their jobs were depriving men of theirs. Therefore, women were forced to return to their more traditional, lower paid jobs. By the 1930s, women's wages were only half that of men, even if they were doing the same job.
168
What did the Sex Disqualification Removal Act of 1919 do?
It meant that SINGLE women could no longer be barred from any jobs because of their sex. In theory, this meant that they could enter professions such as law and architecture
169
When did the Civil Service admit women to government service for the first time?
1925
170
How did WW2 change attitudes of some women about their role in society?
War work gave women a lot more freedom, and they enjoyed the independence this gave them. It also gave some women much more confidence about themselves and their abilities.
171
During WW2, how did the government show support for female workers?
They started helping women with childcare commitment, providing nurseries and encouraging employers to allow women with children to job share. By 1944 there were 1,450 nurseries as opposed to 104 as there was before the war.
172
Even after WW2, what was the state of women's pay?
It continued to be less than mens -around 75% of their pay- for doing the same job.
173
Why did the Equal Pay Commission of 1943 have little effect, despite trying to persuade employers to pay women better?
It had no powers to force changes.
174
Though a lot of women wanted to keep their wartime jobs, most women willingly left them. Why was this?
A government survey of 1947 showed that 58% of women believed that married women should not go out to work. Many had delayed having children during the war and now decided that they wanted to start families.
175
Though a lot of women left their wartime jobs, how did the war give women more confidence and self-respect?
They had shown that not only could they do the same jobs as men but, in many cases, they could do them better.
176
What did the fact that, after WW2, the number of married in paid work stayed above pre-war levels show?
This shows that there was some change in attitudes towards married women working.
177
In the ten years after WW2, how did equal pay progress?
1953: equal pay for teachers agreed. 1955: equal pay for civil servants agreed. However, in both cases this was introduced over time.
178
In the 1950s, some women continued to pioneer new ground. Give examples of some firsts.
The 1950s saw the first female bank manager, television newsreader, managing director of an advertising agency and senior permanent secretary in the civil service.
179
There were clear divisions in society at the start of the 20th century. What were the main two?
Class and gender
180
Why did improved education mean that social divisions in Britain were much less rigid?
Improved education raised the ambitions of bright working class children and enabled to get better qualifications, giving them a chance to get better paid jobs.
181
Explain the significance of David Lloyd George.
He became minister of munitions in 1915, and his ministry had a staff of 65,000 and directed the efforts of over 3 million workers by 1918 (at first the department had 'no staff, no tables and too many mirrors'). He championed the policy of employing women in munitions factories, and as Prime Minister 1916-1918, he led the re-organisation of society for 'total war'.
182
Explain the significance of Winston Churchill in WW2.
His role, as Prime Minister during WW2, was different to Lloyd George's in WW1. Though, like Lloyd George, his government did increase its role in the organisation of society, Churchill also emphasised the importance of leadership by the government. He used his skills as a speaker to maintain morale and unite the nation during the times of greatest danger.
183
Because of wars, important social changes were introduced by: the Liberal government after 1906 and the governments after the First and Second World Wars. What did these changes affect and show?
These huge changes showed that, when government played a bigger role in society, it made a real difference to people's lives. This had a lasting effect on Britain; a government which took responsibility for the welfare of the people and exerted a degree of control over all the assets of the nation became a lasting feature in Britain.
184
How did newspapers have a big impact during the Boer War?
Newspapers sent over 300 reporters to South Africa to cover the war; the Times alone sent 20. The public were kept fully aware of Britain's poor performance. Afterwards, newspapers campaigned for reform of the army to improve Britain's fighting forces.
185
How did newspapers have a big impact after the Boer War?
They publicised reports putting the blame for Britain's war performance on the poor fitness of recruits/ A 1903 headline in the Nottingham Evening Post read 'Why We Are Deteriorating?'; it was an advert for medicine. Newspapers joined the campaigns for reforms to help the poor, so that Britain would be stronger in the future.
