The Fascist State Flashcards
Control and consent; Relations with political and economic groups; Economic policy; Relations with the Church (75 cards)
1
Q
What were the features and aims behind Fascist educational reforms?
A
From 1926, the fascist education system became more focused on indoctrination and obedience:
- In 1928, textbooks were nationalised and one authorised textbook was issued to schools – Libra Unico – that covered all subjects and emphasised Italian history and literature.
- 101 of 317 books were banned as a result of the 1926 policy which aimed to ban textbooks that lacked patriotic quality and they were replaced with textbooks emphasising the Roman empire, the Renaissance and Unification.
- Teachers had to swear an oath of loyalty to Mussolini, and there was also a policy of encouraging employment of teachers who were qualified after 1923 when Mussolini seized power. In 1933, all teachers had to be part of the PNF
Mussolini also had an emphasis on sport and exercise as well as religious education as part of the Lateran Pacts.
2
Q
Universities in Fascist Italy
A
Seen as less of a priority, because children would have already been indoctrinated at school
- Mussolini still expected students to join the GUPand it was incentivised to help spread the Fascist message:
- This allowed access to sports facilities - Half-price admission to entertainment - Part exemption from military service - Enhanced career prospects - Numbers who had joined universities had greatly increased from 1921-42 and from a more diverse range of backgrounds.
- The GUP also ran the Littoriali, which involved debates on fascist subjects
3
Q
Fascist youth movements
A
December 1921 – Fascist Youth Front
The Ballila – for 8-14 years old, associated with revolution and militarism
However, only 3,000 had formally joined by 1924, due to the unstructured and ineffective nature of the youth group system. Things changed after the establishment of dictatorship:
3rd April 1926 – The Opera Nazionale Ballila created by formal decree:
- "For the physical and moral benefit of the youth" - For 8-18 years old, compulsory for boys and girls aged 6-11, but 11+ made compulsory in 1939 - Non-membership was seen as anti-fascist and could hinder you from later employment or education - Restructured in 1934
4
Q
Restructuring of the Ballila
A
1934
Now more complex with:
Figli della Lupa (6-8 years)
Ballila (8-14 years)
Avanguardisti (14-17 years)
5
Q
Creation of the Ministry of National Education
A
1929
Aimed to create a generation of loyal and strong fascists
- At 18 years, boys were trained for military
- Bomb throwing - Boxing - Shooting practice - Wrestling - Marching
6
Q
Youth Groups for girls
A
Aim - To create a generation of healthy mothers who would bare healthy italian children and teach them proper Italian values
- Girls were taught gymnastics
- Taught cookery
- Childcare
There were 3 main groups:
Figlie della Lupa (6-8 years)
Piccole Italiane (8-13 years)
Giovane Italiane (14-17 years)
7
Q
Judgement on effectiveness of Fascist educational reform and youth groups
A
Strengths
Most of the armed forces in WW2 were young Italians who had moved through the youth system. Clearly indoctrinated to give their life to fascism
By 1937 (before joining was compulsory, 1939) youth group membership was at 7 million
Weaknesses
- Many anti-fascist groups were made of the same young Italians that went through the system, so it did not install loyalty in everyone. They also faced opposition from Catholic youth groups.
- Many could have just been giving ‘lip service’
- Many of that 7+ million have just joined because of the leisure activities and less about patriotism. They may have been driven towards the outdoor sports activities
- Considerable north-south divide – most in the south did not continue past the age of 11
- Girls did not enjoy their activities as much as boys –in 1937, the PNF found that girls were more interested in outdoor activities than domestic stuff. They were less likely to continue post 11.
8
Q
When was the OND established?
A
1925 – replaced socialist orgs
9
Q
What was the OND?
A
A fascist group that became part of the PNF in 1927. Aimed to win over the masses through leisure time and subsidies.
- Showing popular films
- Football teams
- Plays and concerts
- Billiard halls
- Bars
- Provision of food and clothes to poorer people
- Subsidised excursions and holidays for workers’ families for basically free
10
Q
Evaluation of the measures to control workers
A
*Strengths**
- By 1939, 4 million members of the OND. This was 80% of Italy’s private and state sector workers and 40% of all industrial workers.
Weaknesses
- It is arguable that the OND had a much greater focus on escapism rather than indoctrination, as unlike youth groups, there was little mention of fascism. They purely wanted to support of workers so it was clear people just joined for the perks.
11
Q
Aims of propaganda in Fascist Italy
A
Aims –promote the imagery of empire, transform people into true fascists and create a shared feeling of patriotism. Also aimed to perpetuate the cult of il Duce
12
Q
Cinema in Fascist Italy
A
Most popular form of entertainment
- Filmmakers had a reasonable amount of freedom as long as they did not criticise the regime.
- It could be argued that similarly to the OND, who commonly subsidised cinema trips, just needed the support of people, so hollywood and italian films were shown throughout the regime.
- This is shown as there was not a proper ministry for propaganda until 1935 (Ministry of the Press) which was later named the Ministry of Popular Culture, 1937.
Only after 1938 when the regime took over Cinecitta (Italy’s Hollywood) did Fascist films get made:
- Such as *Luciana Serra, pilota (1938)* about a pilot in Abyssinia - *Siege of the Alcazar (1940)* about fighting the socialists in Spain, possibly to get people on side about the civil war.
13
Q
Radio in Fascist Italy
A
Only set up in 1924-25, but rapidly grew. Also a new medium like cinema, and did not require literacy to understand, so it could be received in rural towns and cities. Included interviews with PNF members, such as the Chronicles of the Regime
14
Q
Number of radio sets in Italy, 1932-38 and during the war
A
1932 – 300,000
1938 – 1 million+
Also greatly utilised as a medium to gain support during the war: 2 million radio sets installed in market places, schools and factories.
15
Q
Censorship and control in Fascist Italy
A
Aim –create a positive image of Mussolini and fascism
- Tighter fascism laws only came into effect in 1925 with the Leggi Fascistissime
- Independent newspapers were not allowed to publish and editors were dismissed or arrested.
- From December 1925, only some papers were allowed to run if they were registered.
- Papers like Avanti! and Partito Populare were closed – examples of censoring left-wing media
- Avoided publishing news of stories like suicides to portray a positive image of Italy
16
Q
Judgement of propaganda and censorship
A
Strengths
- Media like cinema became very popular throughout the period, but this could be because it did not have strong fascist undertones.
- Censorship was quite successful in portraying a good image of Italy. The Ministry of Popular Culture imposed strict rules on publications
Weaknesses
- Because media did not have strong undertones, similarly to the OND, it is likely that many people were not directly drawn to fascism, but just to the films.
- There were still major newspapers that were critical of fascism, like the Osservatore Romano, which had 250,000 papers in circulation.
- Fascist papers had 10% of the sales of papers in Italy – the Popolo d’Italia only had 100,000 papers in circulation. Maybe Mussolini was more concerned with suppressing leftist papers.
17
Q
The cult of il Duce
A
A cult of personality – Mussolini was this infallible, ideal leader who saved Italy from the threat of socialism and economic despair.
- Propaganda pictures showed him as a wrestler, swimmer, race car driver and pilot. He was the ‘epitome of masculinity’
- Much of the propaganda was associated with Roman imagery, as fascism was the new age of glory. He went to imperial Rome for inspo and Caesar.
18
Q
How many photos of Mussolini circulated Italy?
A
30 million, 2,500 different poses
19
Q
The influence of fascist culture
A
The National Fascist Culture Institute was founded in 1926 in order to spread fascist culture to the masses. They wanted to create a new modern Italian culture based on the traditions of a more glorious past.
Art
- There were neo-classicist artists and modernists artists. There was a lot of artistic freedom, as long as it conformed to the ideal that art was promoting fascism.
- Frequently portrayed sturdy rural or industrial workers making Italy a better nation.
- Artists were expected to join the Syndicate of Professionals and Artists and had to profess loyalty to fascism.
Architecture
- Architecture was used extensively to show power and dynamism
- Similarly to art, architecture had elements of neo-classicism, modernism and futurism.
- The largest building project was the Esposizione Universale Roma (EUR) which was supposed to contain housing apartments, monuments and gov buildings. It stopped building due to WW2.
- Other projects included the Foro Mussolini and the Piazza augusto imperatore. These all linked Fascism to the old Empire.
Literature, drama and intellectuals
- Not a major aspect of Fascist cultural policy.
- Writers just needed to join the relevant fascist syndicate, and musicians had to join their Fascist Union of Musicians.
- Fascism did not appeal to intellectuals, and was only a medium for career advancement.
20
Q
When was the National Fascist Culture Institute found?
A
1926
21
Q
How many political opponents were killed between 1920-22?
A
Around 2,000
22
Q
How did the nature of political murders change?
A
The nature of violence in 1920-22 in the run up to the March on Rome bred enough fear that uncontrolled use of the squads could be dangerous to the regime. The amount of killings committed during the regime was much smaller and seems to be around 400. There were other ways of maintaining control through repression
23
Q
How did Mussolini maintain control through repression?
A
November 1926 – Public Service Decree gave provincial ‘prefects’ the power to place under police supervision anyone who was perceived as a political threat and banned all other political parties.
Law for the Defence of the State – Special Tribunals could also send dissidents into exile – known as Confino
Confino was damaging to the person and their families, and could occur without concrete evidence of anti-fascist acts.
24
Q
How many cases did the Special Tribunal prosecute?
A
13,547
25
How many sentences did the Special Tribunal pass out and how many years of jail time?
5,155 were found guilty
49 death sentences
27,742 years of jail time
26
How many were sent on *confino*?
Around 10,000
27
Who were OVRA?
Organisation for Vigilance and Repression of Anti-Fascism – **Secret Police**, established in 1927 under Arturo Bocchini
28
How many members were in OVRA?
5,000
29
Powers of OVRA
It could hold people and arrest people without trial, search people and places, tap phones and intercept post. It infiltrated anti-fascist groups as spies and worked to break down any anti-fascist opposition. They infiltrated universities, businesses and unions.
30
How many dossiers/files on people did OVRA possess?
Around 130,000
31
The Servizi Militari Informativi Italiani (SIM)
They were a military spying organisation and were used to organise the assassinations of many prominent figures, such as overseeing Macedonian rebels and the Croatian Ustasha in killing Alexander I in Yugoslavia, and the assassination of the Roselli brothers in June 1937
32
How did the popularity of Mussolini change around 1936?
It peaked in 1936 around the time of the invasion of Abyssinia which was the height of his popularity, and then slowly declined due to economic issues, concerns about his relationship with Germany and Mussolini's inability to fulfil the promises he made
33
Population of Jews in Italy
45,000, less than 1%
34
What was the anti-semitic rhetoric like in Fascism?
Hardly any anti-semitic rhetoric up until anti-Jewish policy in 1938 and no focus on race like in Nazism.
35
How many Jewish members of the PNF were there?
10,000 – this is confusing as to why Mussolini would choose to introduce anti-semitic legislation
36
Margherita Sarfatti
Mussolini's *jewish* mistress
37
Jewish anti-fascism outside Italy
- Many members of the group Justice and Liberty were Jewish
- The French PM, Leon Blum, who was vocal in his opposition to Italian intervention in Spain was Jewish
38
Development of the Italian Racial Laws
*July 1938*
- Official support for the 'Manifesto of Racial Scientists' – basically argued that Jews weren't part of the Italian race
*August*
- All *foreign born* jews were banned from state schools
*September*
- **All jews** were now banned from state schools
- Jews were banned from teaching in state schools and separate Jewish schools were established
*October*
- Jews were excluded from the PNF and other fascist orgs
- Jews were forbidden from owning large companies of over 100 employees or landed estates
*November*
- Jews were not allowed to marry non-jews
- Jews were excluded from military and baking
- Foreign jews were expelled
39
How did Italy react to the anti-semitic decrees?
**Italian public**
- The Italian public had little to no history of anti-semitism, so it was not something that resonated with them in any great way.
- Mussolini had also begun the 'reform of customs' campaign, in which he forced all civil servants to wear uniform, and the military to adopt the 'goose step'/passo romano which he saw in *Germany*. Italians were forbidden to shake hands, only do the 'Roman Salute', as shaking hands was 'foreign and bourgeoisie'.
These were seen as a pointless exercise in order to become more like the Germans with little relevancy in their lives.
**Church**
- The Pope opposed the policies as an un-Italian way of trying to become like the Nazis.
**Conservative Elites**
- Elites like King Victor Emmanuel III opposed the anti-semitic laws, but still signed them
**The decrees had demonstrated that Italy was moving in a direction of subordination towards the Germans, and Mussolini's aim of trying to transform Italy into a more radical and war-like state had failed**
40
Why did Mussolini adopt the anti-semitic decrees?
Confusing, as Mussolini had a jewish mistress and jews in the PNF. He had also supported zionism and stated that 'anti-semitism does not exist in Italy'.
- Most likely to do with the overarching aim or trying to radicalise Italy into a more war-loving state as per the ideals of Fascism. This was seen in his foreign policy, like intervening in Spain and more successfully invading Abyssinia, and the 'reform of customs'
- Hitler did not have any direct influence on Mussolini, but his more radical line towards jews may have influenced him, as well as in Poland and Romania. This would tie in with the aspects of foreign policy that indicated a subordination towards Germany
41
What was Mussolini's aims behind his relationships with the monarchy and the conservative elites?
Mussolini wanted to minimise their power so that all political power and decision making would be made by him alone
42
Why did Mussolini need the support of the monarchy?
Until 1943, Italy was a constitutional monarchy, and to some extent, Mussolini needed to respect the wishes of the king, despite propaganda stating that il Duce was the all-powerful leader.
Mussolini needed the support of the judiciary, army and the civil service and they were all closely linked to the monarchy.
It also gave fascism legitimacy
43
What did King Victor Emmanuel III gain from fascism?
The war against Abyssinia and Albania brought him titles
44
How were the King's powers diminished?
December 1928 – The Fascist Grand Council was given the power to fix the line of succession to the throne because the heir apparent, Prince Umberto was anti-fascist.
June 1940 – The king's command over the army was transferred to Mussolini in war
45
How did Mussolini treat the judiciary?
Anti-Fascist judges were removed and replaced with fascists – the judiciary was no longer impartial
However, except for the introduction of the Special Tribunals in November 1926, the judicial system remained the same
46
How was the civil service treated?
Mussolini had promised to make cuts to the civil service, and did in 1922 and 1925, cutting the amount of ministries from 15 to 11. But by 1930, the civil service was growing, and only 15% were part of the PNF until 1935 when it was made compulsory – this just meant people had to join, but did not mean they were sincere fascists.
47
Mussolini's aim with nationalists
He knew he needed to win them over, as they shared the same ideals of the importance of the nation, culture and identity
48
How did Mussolini win over nationalists?
- Corfu (27th Aug 1923)
- Fiume (Jan 1924)
- Locarno (1925)
- Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928)
- Lateran Pacts (1929)
- Abyssinia (October 1935)
49
Impact of the nationalist merger with the PNF
They had a profound influence on the running of the country and on Mussolini's foreign policy becoming more radical. They did not pose much of a threat to Mussolini.
- Luigi Federzoni (ex-nationalist) appointed minister of the interior, which helped placate elites after the Matteotti Crisis
50
Mussolini and the armed forces
They became supportive of Mussolini because of shared interests in expanding the army and aggressive foreign policy
- Generals gave loyalty to Mussolini
- Despite being Supreme Minister for War, Mussolini hardly intervened in the army's procedures
51
How did Mussolini centralise his power?
Mussolini made himself:
- Head of Foreign Affairs
- Minister of the Interior
- Minister of all the armed forces
In 1926, parliament lost the right to:
- Discuss policy
- Debate
- Amend proposed legislation
- Further undermined when Mussolini banned all political parties
- In May 1928, parliament had to be 400 deputies chosen by the Fascist Grand Council
52
Role of the Fascist Grand Council
December 1928 – formalised as the most important legal body in fascism
However, they had little power. Mussolini retained the power to appoint the top PNF leaders and et out the laws to be debated by the Grand Council. They had no consultation on major policies such as entry into WW2, and during the 1930s, the council barely met.
53
Mussolini and local governments
Mussolini had put *podestas* in charge of local councils, appointed by the prefects who had the highest state authority in a province (mostly career civil servants). This was one way in which Mussolini kept conservative elites on side, as he appointed them as podestas, instead of PNF members. Despite not being directly part of fascism, they were still loyal to Mussolini.
54
Mussolini's aims with the PNF
Minimise their power and maintain control over the party
55
Roberto Farinacci
Appointed secretary of the party, who purged the party of those who did not agree with the political direction pursued by Mussolini. He was an extremist and continued to encourage squad violence against socialists and catholics/PPI members. This was becoming unpopular after the Matteotti Crisis and hindered Mussolini's ability to stay in power:
October 1925 – squads killed 8 liberals in Florence. Mussolini had to purge the Florence Fascio and dismiss Farinacci. Augusto Turati was appointed – more bureaucratic.
56
How many members did Turati purge?
50-60,000
57
How many members left willingly, unhappy with the new direction?
110,000
58
Economic interest groups
Mussolini had to placate economic interest groups such as Fiat and Pirelli. He protected small shop owners as well, with a licensing system introduced to protect these retailers against larger competitors.
Italian businesses benefitted the most from PNF economic policies. Mussolini had adapted trade policy for both industrialists and syndicalists.
October 1925 – Palazzo Vidoni Pact, industrialists had recognised the fascist syndicates as the only representative body for workers.
59
When was the Palazzo Vidoni Pact?
October 1925
60
What was the Palazzo Vidoni Pact?
Industrialists recognised the fascist syndicates as the only body for Italian workers.
61
What is syndicalism?
An economic system between capitalism and communism.
Private businesses would remain but there would be no class conflict between trade unions and employers. Instead, employers and workers representatives would form *syndicates*, co-operative bodies where both groups would discuss policy from different aspects of the economy and the direction of the country. Many had joined the PNF hoping for this system, but Mussolini never properly moved towards this.
62
To what extent did Mussolini implement syndicalism?
Mussolini did not want to alienate conservative industrial elite who were worried about this concept.
April 1926 – Rocco Law, after Minister of Justice Alfredo Rocco. Allowed syndicates some rights of representation and for compulsory arbitration concerning pay and conditions and tribunals. **Strikes, go slows and lockouts were banned.** This was obviously welcomed by businesses.
63
When was the Rocco Law?
April 1926
64
Aims of Mussolini's economic policy?
- To strengthen the political system
- To make Italy self-sufficient and to achieve autarky
- To fund Italy’s military and expansionist aims
65
Policy of De'Stefani
- Favoured little government intervention
- Reduced government spending in order to balance the budget
- Privatised the telephone sector and other public-owned industry
- Removed regulations from the economy and cut protective tariffs.
66
Successes of De'Stefani's policies
From 1921-24, Italy's manufacturing production improved and Italy received a budget surplus (revenue>expenditure)
67
Weaknesses of De'Stefani's policies
Agricultural sectors were unhappy about removing protective tariffs and De'Stefani grappled with inflation that rapid growth brought
68
When was De'Stefani replaced and by who?
July 1925, but Count Guiseppe Volpi
69
How did economic policy change from 1925?
Change from minimal government intervention to a policy of regulated, state-run economy that was geared towards Fascism
70
When did the Battle for Lira begin?
August 1926
71
Lira : Pound exchange rate (1922)
90 lira : £1
72
Lira : Pound exchange rate (1926). How did this change from 1922?
150 lira : £1
The lira had been weakened in foreign markets. This could cause an inflationary crisis that could hurt the middle classes
73
What was the Battle for Lira?
Economic policy to strengthen the Lira, as this was seen as symbolic of the strength of the regime itself.
In December 1927, the lira was fixed at 19 : $1 and 92.46 : £1
This was meant to demonstrate the will of Il Duce to withhold Italian economic pride
74
Costs of the Battle for Lira
Reevaluating the currency at a fixed price was considered too high and deflationary measures like massive price reductions and wage cuts had to be introduced. Exports also lost business, as the lira was now very strong and hurt foreign markets as they were now overvalued.
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