The New World

Question 1

‘Therefore go and make disciples of all nations’

Answer 1

Matthew 28:19

Question 2

‘Go into all the world and preach the gospel to every creature’

Answer 2

Mark 16:15

Question 3

Constantine converted to Christianity

Answer 3

312

Question 4

One God was proclaimed to all mankind - one universal power, the Roman power, emerged and flourished
Knowledge of salvation and doctrine of Christ made known to all mankind

Answer 4

Eusebius of Caesarea - Oration in praise of Constantine

Question 5

When Charlemagne went North of the Elme

Answer 5

converted the pagans simply by baptising them. No focus on teaching. Would be integrated through partaking in ordinary life

Question 6

Who could doubt that this flash of understanding was the work of the Holy Spirit as well as my own?

Our Lord wished to bring about a most evident miracle out of my voyage to the Indies

Answer 6

Book of Prophecies, ed. Columbus, 1502, after 1st four voyages, to Ferdinand and Isabella

Question 7

‘I am the good shepherd and I know my own… I must also bring them in’

Answer 7

Columbus, quoting John 10:14-16

Question 8

Cortés desperate to convince Aztec Emperor to join forces

Answer 8

1521

Question 9

beginning of Inca history fixed at time of arrival of one of descendants of Noah

Answer 9

Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala,

Question 10

great bearded sage who had left big cross in Bolivia

Answer 10

indigenous sources

Question 11

Around America

Answer 11

lots of pre-Hispanic crosses scattered

Question 12

Description of whole conquest

Paints own role in bright lights

Placing arguments in solid tradition

Notion of one world. These Indians are Christians who’ve forgotten their religion

Makes sense of his idea of replacing idols with Christian images

As soon as Christian message presented, Indians would correct their ways

Refers to temples occasionally as mosques, as this was what he was expecting to see in Asia

Answer 12

Cortés, conqueror of Mexico, to Charles V
2nd of 5 or 6 letters

Most missionaries kept citing this letter - don’t destroy temples because you’ll put them off

Question 13

‘Grace does not destroy nature but perfects it.’

Answer 13

T Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 1274 (unfinished)

Question 14

Accepted fundamental concordance of divine and human

Gave Thomistic conception its full realisation in New World

Wrote of one Indian -
‘it seemed to me that I saw in him our father Adam when he enjoyed the state of innocence’

Desire behind idolatry = good thing

Defended Aztec human sacrifices as expression of excessive religious zeal

Taínos observed natural religion in most basic form so could be easily converted to Christian faith

Answer 14

Las Casas, A Brief Account of the Destruction of the Indies, 1552

Question 15

Reasons for negative view of American natives middle of 16th C

Answer 15

Shock of betrayal, once friars had seen Indians not really converted

Effects of Reformation - good missionaries staying in Europe - clever missionaries of 1st 50 years dwindle

As state grew in importance, more important to justify conquest and good way to do this = to highlight perversity of native cultures

Question 16

Intellectual crisis in medieval thought

Answer 16

existence to essence

Question 17

Much more objective, scientific than initial attitudes and accounts

Impatient with literature of the friars, supernatural. Only when he’s describing natural things, however.
When describing religious things, speaks about supernatural, starts speaking about things being work of the devil

Answer 17

Jose de Acosta, Natural and Moral History of the Indies, 1590

Question 18

Began to justify conquest of New World in instrumental terms

We’re here because we’re superior

Answer 18

Fernandez de Oviedo, la historia general y natural de las Indias 1526

Question 19

Francisco Lopez de Gómara

Answer 19

‘There was never a people more idolatrous than this one, so given over to the killing and the eating of their fellow human beings’

Question 20

18th Century, essence-focus

Deterministic attitude to New World

Everything in New World inferior. Justifies our presence

Answer 20

Le Clerc, Comte de Buffon

Guillaume-Thomas Raynal

William Robertson

Question 21

Law of Siete Partidas

Answer 21

Castilian medieval code of law which incorporated a load of Islamic law
In absence of immediate authortiy, town can elect a leader who is under monarch’s authority

Cortés founded city of Vera Cruz. To get council and people elected to the council, to get them to elect him captain of the expedition, used the law of Siete Partidas

Question 22

Instruction

Answer 22

development of emphasis on instruction is what we see in Mexico. Cortés doesn’t instruct, he just gets Indians to practice

Question 23

Understands mission as being to go to India and determine what method should be undertaken for the people’s conversion

Ferdinand and Isabella described specifically as ‘enemies of the sect of Muhammad and of all idolatries and heresies’

Answer 23

Columbus, letter to Ferdinand and Isabella

Question 24

12th Century philosophers and theologians argued that anyone who applied reason…

Answer 24

Could only conclude that Christianity correct

Question 25

Cicero, de Legibus

Answer 25

mankind is the only one among so many kinds and varieties of living beings who has a share in reason and thought

Question 26

13th Century on, Dominican and Franciscan friars...

Answer 26

Launched vigorous and planned campaigns at conversion aimed at Jews and Muslims in Christian and non-Christian lands like North Africa

Question 27

Number of books written by Raymund Lull

Answer 27

Over 300, but converted nobody

Question 28

Invitations to learn more about Christian faith carried in

Answer 28

Letters conveyed by Columbus to the Great Khan (unaware Mongol Yüan dynasty had been overthrown by Ming emperors 1368)

Question 29

1st lines of Columbus's logbook

Answer 29

Columbus says mission = to see how natives of the Orient could be converted Asserted that Khans had many times sent to Rome to request teachers of the holy faith, but Holy Father hadn't provided them with this (these lines probably added to flatter monarchs on Columb's return)

Question 30

No friars aboard until Columbus's second voyage in

Answer 30

1493

Question 31

Evd Columbus seeking resources

Answer 31

noticing cotton widely grown on islands he'd discovered: I think it would sell well over here... to the large cities of the Khan

Question 32

García, Chronicle of King John II of Castile of 1417

Answer 32

Told of capture of Canaries by Spanish Muslims under great general al-Mansur

Question 33

Founded evangelical academy at Miramar | Didn't last, but sowed seeds for missionary movement among Franciscans, w whom he had cordial ties

Answer 33

Raymund Lull

Question 34

Spiritual descendants of Raymund Lull

Answer 34

Catalan and Majorcan missionaries who were being commended to the Pope by King of Aragon 70 years after Raymund's death

Question 35

Method of Catalan and Majorcan missionaries

Answer 35

Insert Christian missionaries into native societies and, using gentle example and persistent preaching, to draw the unenlightened into the faith

Question 36

Wanted new lands for himself, for crusading Order of Christ. | Seen as part of wider assault on Islam

Answer 36

Henry 'the Navigator' of Portugal, 1394-1460

Question 37

Painé's task

Answer 37

to study in detail the language and beliefs of the natives of Hispaniola, to provide basis for missionary programme Drawing on tradition of Raymund Lull, developed with Muslims and Jews in mind Catalan speciality Difference - lack of books in oral culture Hugely different conception of the world

Question 38

Pané attempts to fit Taíno conception of the world to familiar structure

Answer 38

They believe in a creator God, in heaven, immortal, no one can see, has a mother, but no beginning. Call him 'Giver of Cassava, Master of the Sea, Conceived without Male Intervention'

Question 39

Painé wanted to show

Answer 39

that the Taínos were aware of existence of a single creator God - 'natural religion' lay at the root of beliefs Switched soon to scorn for superstitions

Question 40

Just as the Moors, they have their laws gathered in ancient songs, by which they govern themselves, as do the Moors by their scripture

Answer 40

Pané, of Taínos, in An account of the antiquities of the Indians, 1498

Question 41

Gulf between Taíno beliefs and Christian ones

Answer 41

e.g. Ts believed that dead walked around the world of the living with no navels. No rigid life/ afterlife distinction

Question 42

Columbus, logbook, of Taíno Indians

Answer 42

'these people have no religion, nor are they idolatrous, rather they are very gentle, without knowing what evil is... they are believers, and recognise that there is a God in heaven'

Question 43

Columbus used this native ally to defeat Indian caciques without difficulty

Answer 43

Guacanagarí

Question 44

In Trinidad, Columbus saw

Answer 44

islanders wearing turbans similar to almaizores - head-covering of Spanish Muslims

Question 45

Suppression of Judaism and Islam in Portugal

Answer 45

1497

Question 46

Required to be read publicly to those who were about to have lands brought under Spanish rule God gave St Peter the world. Thus, he and his successors had the right to judge and govern all Christians, Moors and Jews One of Peter's heirs made donation of these isles and the mainland to Spanish Kings and Queens If those hearing document in doubt, could ask to see written proof Native peoples told could have time to understand but also warned of 'malicious delay' Natives must accept Pope and Spanish rulers and must accept right of Christian preachers to spread the faith among them If they do these things, they, their families and land will be left alone, free

Answer 46

Doctrine of Submission, 1513 'The Requirement'

Question 47

Roots of 'the Requirement'

Answer 47

Seed has traced them back to Islamic practices in times of war Koran 2:256, no compulsion in religion Averroës, passage had to be sent to enemy, requiring to submit

Question 48

Continuing role of the caciques as heads of their communities resembled

Answer 48

self-government permitted by Muslims to Jews and Christians, allowing them to administer their own laws Comparable practice enshrined in many 'surrender treaties' which allowed Moors to submit to Christian rule on what both sides agreed were honourable terms

Question 49

Indians had to move to special villages close to Spanish settlements in the New World just as

Answer 49

Muslim and Jewish communities had to live in defined areas

Question 50

Cortés, of the Tenochtitlán cotton market

Answer 50

'it seems like the silk market of Granada'

Question 51

Basic framework for governing New World natives' societies created as a result of

Answer 51

the discovery of less complex, village-based societies 1st encountered in the Canaries, Bahamas, Caribbean, Brazil Encomienda system imposed despite these huge differences

Question 52

Encomienda

Answer 52

Encomienda, in colonial Spanish America, legal system by which the Spanish crown attempted to define the status of the Indian population in its American colonies. It was based upon the practice of exacting tribute from Muslims and Jews during the Reconquista (“Reconquest”) of Muslim Spain. Although the original intent of the encomienda was to reduce the abuses of forced labour (repartimiento) employed shortly after the discovery of the New World, in practice it became a form of enslavement. As legally defined in 1503, an encomienda (from encomendar, “to entrust”) consisted of a grant by the crown to a conquistador, soldier, official, or others of a specified number of Indians living in a particular area. The receiver of the grant, the encomendero, could exact tribute from the Indians in gold, in kind, or in labour and was required to protect them and instruct them in the Christian faith. The encomienda did not include a grant of land, but in practice the encomenderos gained control of the Indians’ lands and failed to fulfil their obligations to the Indian population. The crown’s attempts to end the severe abuses of the system with the Laws of Burgos (1512–13) and the New Law of the Indies (1542) failed in the face of colonial opposition and, in fact, a revised form of the repartimiento system was revived after 1550. The encomienda was designed to meet the needs of the colonies’ early mining economy. With the catastrophic decline in the Indian population and the replacement of mining activities by agriculture, the system lost its effectiveness and was gradually replaced by the hacienda system of landed estates. The encomienda was not officially abolished, however, until the late 18th century.

Question 53

Henry the Navigator is actuated by zeal for God - wish to convert people to Christianity and fight moors No mention of gold, ivory, slaves as motives

Answer 53

Eanes, Crónica dos feitos da Guiné, of Henry the Navigator

Question 54

Caravel used for exploration e.g. by Columbus

Answer 54

adapted from arab qârib

Question 55

Papal bull January 1455 to Alfonso V of Portugal

Answer 55

confirmed to the Crown of Portugal dominion over all lands south of Cape Bojador in Africa. Along with encouraging the seizure of the lands of Saracen Turks and non-Christians, endorsed the enslavement of such peoples.

Question 56

Treaty of Tordesillas

Answer 56

1494

Question 57

America clearly marked as an administrative province, 'vilayet Antilia'

Answer 57

On Ottoman map of 'Colon-bo', 1513

Question 58

Crushing of first revolt of the Alpujarras

Answer 58

1501

Question 59

After crushing of first revolt of the Alpujarras

Answer 59

Muslims of Granada converted or expelled

Question 60

All Muslims in Castile forced to convert or be expelled

Answer 60

1502

Question 61

Charles V forced all Muslims of Aragon to convert or be expelled, prompting revolt of Muslims of Valencia

Answer 61

1525