The People's Health Flashcards
(115 cards)
1
Q
What were the key features of medieval Britain?
A
-Farming and food, towns, limited technology, religion, and government shaped people’s lives.
2
Q
What role did farming and food play in health?
A
-Most people were peasants who worked the land. Bad harvests could cause starvation for peasants and their families.
3
Q
What were towns like in medieval Britain?
A
-Small but busy places with local trades and crafts. Towns were especially busy on market days.
4
Q
How did limited technology affect medieval life?
A
-Most items were handmade. Watermills and windmills were the most powerful machines. The printing press was only introduced in the 1470s and the microscope had not yet been invented.
5
Q
What was the influence of religion in medieval Britain?
A
-Almost everyone was a Christian and a member of the Roman Catholic Church. Each parish had its own church. There were many cathedrals and monasteries.
6
Q
What was the role of government in health and daily life?
A
-Kings ruled and taxed people but spent money on courts and wars. The medieval government did little to help ordinary people’s health.
7
Q
Where did most people live and how did this affect their lives?
A
-90% lived in the countryside. Life quality depended on social class which impacted access to water, housing, and food.
8
Q
What were countryside houses like?
A
-Lords lived in large manor houses. Peasants lived in small huts made of woven sticks. Animals were valuable and often brought indoors.
9
Q
What were some health dangers of medieval houses?
A
-Open fires with no chimneys filled rooms with smoke.
- could lead to respiratory diseases
10
Q
What were houses in towns like?
A
-Built close together in the centre of towns. Only the wealthy had gardens. Craftsmen often lived where they worked. People were expected to clean their street, but many didn’t.
11
Q
How did people get water in towns? medieval period
A
-Some towns had lead pipe conduits that brought spring water. Water sellers sold water from leather sacks.
12
Q
How did countryside people get water during medieval times?
A
-From springs or wells. Sometimes shared with animals and not always clean.
13
Q
How was waste removed in towns?
A
-Public latrines in market squares. Rakers removed waste. Gongfermers emptied cesspits and tipped waste outside town walls or into streams.
14
Q
How was waste removed in the countryside?
A
-Middens in gardens. Some houses had cesspits. Waste was often used as fertiliser.
15
Q
How did wealth affect diet during medieval times?
A
-Wealthy people ate a wide variety of meat, fish, cheese, eggs, nuts, fruit, and used honey. Poor people mostly ate pottage (thick vegetable soup).
16
Q
What was the importance of bread?
A
-Rye bread was a staple for the poor but could contain a fungus that caused illness or death.
17
Q
What drinks were common and why?
A
- Ale and cider were boiled (killing germs), making them safer than town water. Made from barley or apples.
18
Q
When did the Black Death reach Britain and how?
A
-Arrived in 1348 via trade routes. Reached northern England, Wales, and Ireland by the end of 1349.
19
Q
What was the main cause of the Black Death spreading?
A
-Fleas or rats. Medieval people didn’t know this and had their own beliefs.
20
Q
What were the three types of plague and their symptoms?
A
-Bubonic: Buboes, fever, blisters, death in days
-Septicaemic: Bleeding, vomiting, diarrhoea, death in hours
-Pneumonic: Coughing blood, chest pains, death in 2 days
21
Q
What did people believe caused the Black Death?
A
-Punishment from God
-Unusual movement of planets
-Miasma (bad air)
-Humour imbalance
22
Q
What 2 treatments were tried during the Black Death?
A
-Tying live chickens or toads to buboes
-Bloodletting
-None were successful
23
Q
What did the Church recommend during the Black Death ?-
A
-Confess sins and pray for forgiveness.
24
Q
What was the role of flagellants during the black death ?
A
-Whipped themselves hoping for God’s forgiveness.
25
What were other measures taken to avoid the plague?
-Burning rosemary for clean air
-Rich people ran away to countryside
-People shut themselves in their homes
26
Why did monasteries need clean water?
-For religious ceremonies and washing linen and people.
27
Why did monasteries have good sanitation?
-Monasteries were rich and powerful, could pay for piped water over long distances, and some had hospitals.
28
How did towns begin to take more responsibility for public health? medieval period
-As the Church’s power declined, richer citizens paid for conduits and public toilets. Authorities forced citizens to deal with waste.
29
How did town authorities improve the environment? -medieval period
-filthy roads and market places were dealt by paving market places in Shrewsbury 1301
-this lead to better trade and the idea spread to other towns
-Dung heaps were moved to town edges in Bristol and York
-this decreased chances of bacteria spreading
-Named and shamed waste dumpers in Norwich 1287–89 which lead to purer water supply
-Food guilds fined rule-breakers in Winchester 1329 which lead to safer meat and other foods
30
How did London lead the way in health from 1348–1500?
-1385: Appointed wardens to check for filth in streets and the bank of Thames
-1415: Rebuilt a latrine at Moorgate due to flooding neighbouring properties with sewage -
1430s: Mayor of London organised extended clean water pipe and rich citizens left money in wills to imrpove water supplies and to build new public latrines
31
What changed in farming and food in early modern Britain?
- Bad harvests still happened, but improved farming fed more people by 1750.
32
How did towns and trade develop? - modern period
-Towns grew overcrowded. Food like sugar and tobacco came from the Caribbean and Americas through the British Empire and slave trade.
33
What new discoveries emerged?
-Scientific approach to disease began. Robert Hooke developed a powerful microscope in the 1660s.
34
How did government change? - modern period
-By 1750, Parliament was stronger than the monarchy and passed new laws affecting people’s lives.
35
What did the rich eat and drink? - modern period
-Large variety of meat and fish, white bread, exotic fruits, wine, ale. mainly protein diet led to digestive issues and gout.
36
What did the poor eat in the modern period.?
-Bread, pottage, vegetables, occasional meat/eggs/cheese. Healthier but lacked iron and vitamin C. Faced starvation.
37
How did rich and poor access water during the early modern period ?
-Rich: Piped water (expensive), bought from sellers
-Poor: Collected from conduits or rivers
38
How did people keep clean during the early modern period?
-Rich: Servants who washed their clothes, olive oil soap, heated bathtubs
-Poor: Bathed in rivers or used brushes for dry washing
39
What waste problems existed during the early modern period?
-Scavengers removed waste once or twice a week
-Privies emptied into cesspits
-Overflow spread disease
Flushing toilets invented in 1596 but rare
40
Describe the outbreaks of plague in the modern period
-there were many serious outbreaks of plague in the period 1500-1667
-the most serious outbreak of the plague was the Great Plague of 1665
41
What causes did people still believe in for the plague ?
-God’s punishment for sin and miasma.
-by the end the period , scientists began to think that close contact with an infected period may be the cause of the disease spreading
42
What laws were passed to control the plague?
-1518: Victims isolated with straw bundles outside homes to identify them + people were isolated in pesthouses
-1578: 17 orders including burning bedding and six-week quarantine + financial help for the sick
-special prayers were asked for God's forgiveness
-1604: Plague Act increased financial help for the families of the sick
-city and town watchmen could use harsh punishments to enforce the policy of isolation
-A plague victim who left their house and mingled with others could be hanged
43
how effective were the rules of 1518
-limited effectiveness as orders where not enforced everywhere
44
how effective were the rules of 1578?
-effective in reducing the spread of disease although it isolated the healthy with the sick causing criticism at the time
-the connection between the dirt and disease was made
45
how effective were the rules passed in 1604 ?
-the punishments , including death , for those leaving isolation reduced the spread of disease because people stayed in isolation
-people still did not know the plague was spread by fleas and rats
46
What were some local government responses to the plague during the modern period ?
-Yarmouth banned pigs, dogs, and cats
-Eyam self-quarantined in 1665
-Towns like Cambridge required health certificates
-Bills of Mortality recorded weekly deaths
47
Why did people go to church during the plague?
-Nearly everyone believed in God; they prayed that He would take away the plague.
48
Who was able to run away or leave infected towns?
- Only the rich. Most had to stay and deal with the disease as best they could.
49
What did people try to cure the plague?
- Plague doctors used sweet-smelling posies. Tobacco smoking became popular as people believed the smoke stopped miasma.
50
Why did people avoid the sick?
-To prevent catching the plague. Foreign immigrants were sometimes blamed for spreading disease.
51
What urban improvements were made in York?
-People were told to clean outside their homes and not throw waste before 7pm. A fine system was used to stop human waste being dumped in streets.
52
What happened after 1670?
-Plague outbreaks stopped, but improvements benefited mainly the rich. Conditions remained poor for others.
53
what improvements were made after 1670?
-Water companies brought piped water into peoples homes but only the rich could afford this luxury
-large houses were built for the wealthy and streets were lit with lamps
-conditions did not improve for the poorer sections of town
54
Why did alcohol become a major health concern in the 1700s?
-Rum which was a by product of the slave trade , stronger ales, and cheap gin caused widespread addiction and health issues.
55
What was the gin craze and why was it serious?
-From 1720–1751, gin was cheap, addictive, and caused crime, poverty, and high death rates. Known as 'mother’s ruin.'
56
Give an example of the gin craze’s dangers.
-In 1734, Judith Defour killed her 2-year-old daughter to sell her clothes for gin.
57
what did the various measures governments introduced to stop the gin craze include ?
-Alehouses had to have a licence
-the Gin Act of 1729
-the Gin Act of 1736
- the Gin Act of 1751
58
What did the Gin Act of 1729 do?
- Introduced a £20 licence fee for sellers and a 5-shilling tax per gallon for producers.
-impossible to enforce bcause of the
59
What did the Gin Act of 1736 do?
- Raised the licence to £50 and producer tax to 20 shillings.
-this act failed because of similar reasons to the 1729 Act
-there was rioting against this war and many people started distilling gin in their homes illegally
60
What did the Gin Act of 1751 do?
-Imposed harsh punishments on illegal sellers. It worked — gin consumption and crime dropped.
61
What changed between 1750 and 1900?
-People stopped working from home and worked in factories
-Machinery in the countryside made the supply of food easier
-the theory of evolution was accepted
-religion declined and scientists discovered germs caused disease
-democracy expanded as more and more women and men were given the right to vote in 1832, 1867 and 1884.
-the middle classes had grown in number and power
-working classes were ignored as their conditions worsened
-transport and technology continued to develop as railways with steam trains transported goods nation wide
62
How did housing conditions harm health?
-Overcrowding, poor housing, and damp cellars spread disease. Families shared single rooms and privies.
63
Why was there no help for the poor?
-Rich councils didn’t want to raise taxes. Laissez-faire attitudes meant the government avoided interference.
64
Why was disease common?
(Industrial Britain)
-Germs were not understood until 1861. Dirty drinking water, close living conditions, and poor diet caused TB, cholera, and influenza.
65
How did poor diet weaken immune systems? ( industrial Britain )
-Diet lacked fruit, vegetables, and nutrients. Bread was poor quality. Beer was cheaper than water. Food was often adulterated.
66
What were problems with private water companies?
-They used dirty water sources like ponds and rivers. Their sewers were overfilled and unregulated.
67
When were the four cholera epidemics and how many died?
-1831–32, 1848, 1854, and 1865–66. Over 100,000 people died.
68
How did cholera spread?
- Infected water due to lack of sewers and waste entering water supply.
69
What was believed about cholera in the 1830s?
-Miasma (bad air) was blamed. It was seen as God’s punishment.
70
What did the Central Board of Health do in 1832?
-Set up to study the disease and encourage a national day of prayer and fasting. Tar burned in streets to purify air.
71
What did Edwin Chadwick do in 1848?
-Wrote the ‘Sanitary Report’ describing public health crisis. Helped trigger the 1848 Public Health Act.
72
What did the 1848 Public Health Act do?
-Created the General Board of Health. Councils could appoint medical officers and improve sanitation — but only if death rate was above 23 per 1000.
73
What were the limitations of the 1848 Act?
-By 1853, only 163 places had local health boards. It was abolished in 1854. London was excluded.
74
What did John Snow prove in 1854?
-Cholera was caused by infected water. He traced an outbreak to a contaminated pump.
75
What happened in 1866?
-The Sanitary Act gave councils responsibility for water, sewers, and street cleaning. Good sewers reduced cholera deaths.
76
: Who helped prove the germ theory?
-Louis Pasteur (1861) and John Snow. Germ theory replaced miasma and transformed disease prevention.
77
What law replaced midden privies?
-The pail privy law — waste was collected in removable buckets.
78
What did the 1875 Public Health Act do?
-Forced councils to provide clean water, drainage, and sewers. Appointed inspectors and medical officers.
79
What was the 1860 Adulteration of Food Act?
-Tried to stop food contamination. Only 7 analysts appointed. Replaced by 1875 Food and Drugs Act.
80
What was the 1865 Bazalgette sewer system?
-1300 miles of sewers built to stop Thames pollution. Carried waste to a treatment plant, preventing waterborne diseases.
81
What was the 1866 Sanitary Act?
- Forced councils to connect homes to mains water and provide sewers. Challenged laissez-faire.
82
What did the 1875 Sale of Food and Drugs Act do?
- Introduced harsh punishments for selling adulterated food. Gave councils power to seize unfit products.
83
What was the 1891 Slum Clearance?
-London County Council cleared overcrowded slums like Old Nichol. New, healthier homes were built.
84
What was the 1894 Thirlmere Dam project?
-Manchester brought fresh water from a distant reservoir. Huge engineering project. Took 15+ years to complete.
85
What were living conditions like in Britain in 1900 vs. 2000 (society)?
-1900: Mostly working class, no welfare state, exercise-based leisure, church attendance common, women couldn’t vote, life expectancy = 50
-2000: Mostly middle class, comprehensive welfare state, indoor leisure, <10% go to church, all adults can vote, life expectancy = 77
86
How did technology change from 1900 to 2000?
-1900: Cars for the rich only, no aeroplanes, telegraphs for communication, electricity becoming popular
-2000: Cars and air travel are normal, instant phone/internet communication, most homes have electricity
87
How did WW1 affect public housing?
-Positive: Government built 500,000 homes
-Negative: Progress was slow
88
How did WW2 affect housing?
-Positive: Cheap high-rise flats with gas/electricity
-Negative: Loss of community spirit due to flats replacing close-knit housing
89
What did Thatcher’s government do for housing?
-Positive: Encouraged people to buy council houses
-Negative: Councils couldn’t replace houses; rise in poor-quality private rentals
90
How did war affect food?
-WW2 rationing improved health by encouraging home-grown food.
91
How did technology affect food?
-Refrigeration and canning improved supply. Microwaves made convenience food more common.
92
How did wealth and immigration affect food?
-Wealth increased after 1950, allowing access to better food. Indian and Chinese food became popular.
93
How did fears affect food?
- (mad cow disease) caused panic
-Fear of artificial ingredients increased demand for fresh food
94
What were the health effects of industrial smog?
-Caused diseases like pneumonia in cities.
95
What did the Clean Air Act 1956 do?
- Introduced smokeless fuels (e.g. charcoal), creating smoke-free zones.
96
How has car ownership affected health since 1980?
-Increased air pollution.
97
How did rationing improve health in WW2?
-Better diet and more physical activity.
98
What caused modern inactivity?
-Cars, TVs, and computers reduced physical movement.
99
What modern health problem is linked to food?
- Obesity and high sugar consumption, especially in children.
100
What were the effects of the Spanish flu (1918–19)?
- Killed more people than WW1. Started as flu, led to pneumonia and internal bleeding. Caused widespread fear.
101
How did people respond to Spanish flu?
-Wore face masks
-Newspapers/films/posters educated people
102
What caused Spanish flu?
- It was a bird flu virus.
103
How did Britain respond to HIV/AIDS (1970s–1983)?
-Raised awareness but caused stigma; people saw victims as shameful.
104
How did responses change in 1984–85?
-Fear increased; people thought AIDS spread by touch.
105
What changed in 1986–87?
- Publicity campaigns began. Diana hugged AIDS patients, reducing stigma.
106
What happened 1988–95?
-Public and media embraced support. Charities grew (e.g. Freddie Mercury concert).
107
What happened from 1996 onwards?
-Awareness declined. Education campaigns stopped. HIV cases rose again.
108
What did the 1902 Midwives Act do?
-Regulated midwives with certification. Central Midwives Board lasted until 1951.
109
What did the 1906 Free School Meals Act do?
-Provided meals for some children. By 1914, meals became widespread.
110
What did the 1907 Medical Inspections in Schools do?
-What did the 1907 Medical Inspections in Schools do?
111
What was the 1911 National Insurance Act?
-Provided unemployment and sickness benefits. Still a key part of welfare.
112
What was discovered in 1962?
- Link between smoking and cancer — triggered government action.
113
What were the major smoking policies (1964–2016)?
-Banned cigarette ads (1964–86)
-Promoted nicotine patches (1998)
-Banned smoking in public (2007)
-All packaging became blank (2016)
114
How has the government tackled obesity?
-Ran campaigns encouraging healthier eating and more movement.
115
What criticisms did the government face over health actions?
-Too slow to act (due to lost tax revenue)
-Called a “nanny state” interfering in personal freedom
