The Persian Wars And Greek Disunity

Question 1

the greek world was divided prior to the persian wars

Answer 1

the Greek polis was autonomous and differed city-to-city. Greek cities were governed in different ways and had wildly differing institutions and laws. They, too, held differing beliefs about their origins, some were Ionians, some were Dorians.
While Greeks may have shared some cultural features, politically they were divided into inter-competing poleis.
Each poleis was primarily motivated by self-interest. They adopted relations which suited the interest of their city. Relations included wars, alliance, trade, etc.
As a result, the Greek world was politically divided prior to the Persian Wars. This is shown best through the political relations between the poleis.

Question 2

greeks being divided prior to the persian wars, chigi vase

Answer 2

The Chigi Vase is a complex source depicting war between two Greek forces. The particular scene shown in the image above is believed to be one of the first examples of a hoplite battle depicted in art. The hoplite form of warfare was believed to have developed only a few decades prior to this painting. The nature of hoplite warfare involved heavily armed ancient Greek foot soldiers whose function was to fight in close formation. They usually used an aspis shield alongside a spear or sword. They wore heavy bronze armour and helmets.

Question 3

chigi vase significance

Answer 3

It demonstrates that Greeks shared a military culture. It is noteworthy that later depictions of Greeks and barbarians are at pains to contrast the fighting styles of the Greeks and their enemies (more on this in latter notes). Here, in the Chigi vase, the opposite is true.

Yet, whilst the Greeks may share a common military culture, it is also self-evident that what is being depicted is a battle between Greeks. War was a normalised part of inter-poleis relations and this is also shown in written sources.

Question 4

examples of greeks being divided prior to persian wars, the aeginetan digression; heroditus

Answer 4

Herodotus sketches a vast range of relations between the different poleis in this section.
There are three main poleis involved: Athens, Aegina, and Epidaurus.

· Epidaurus and Athens had agreed a trading relationship with Athens. Athens provides Epidaurus with wood, whilst in return the Epidaurians brought offerings to Athene polias.
· Epidaurus originally controlled Aegina, but Aegina revolts
· Athens intervenes to protect trade with Epidaurus
· Later, Aegina sides with the Thebans Boeotians (against Athens) because of their rivalry with Athens

Question 5

significance of heroditus the aeginetan digression significance

Answer 5

Poleis had complex relationships involving trade, diplomacy, and war

Poleis were driven by their self-interest. Athens, intervened because they sought to protect their trading relationship

Poleis also held historic rivalries and grudges. Aegina sided with the Boeotians against Athens because of their historic rivalry with the Athenians.

Question 6

what were relations like between greeks before persian wars

Answer 6

· Whilst Greeks appear to have shared a sense of cultural unity and common ideas; this absolutely did not prohibit war.

· Greek cities developed long-lasting and impactful rivalries over historical issues. These rivalries would impact later decisions made by the city

· In some instances, Greeks used diplomacy and trade with one another.

· Sparta had developed into the most powerful state. They created the Peloponnesian League, a series of alliances with most poleis on the Peloponnese. In 510 they showed their power by intervening in Athenian politics and overthrowing the tyrant Hippias hoping to establish a more loyal government. The political vacuum they left behind allowed Athens democratic system to emerge.

Question 7

why did the ionian revolt take place, 5.31-37. timeline

Answer 7

Aristagoras, Greek tyrant of Miletus, proposes to Persian governor in Sardis that they should conquer Naxos promising wealth -Persian governor agrees and offers 200 ships (with future repayments required) - Joint Persian. Miletus invasion of Naxos occurs - Persian commander mistreats a Greek captain called Scylax. He is said to have failed to organise his guards, and gets the punishment of hauling his head through an oar-hole.
-Aristagoras was unhappy with the treatment - Siege failed - Aristagoras owed Persians money - Aristagoras organises revolt to save his leadership of Miletus
- Aristagoras’ attempts to gain support:
-first act: to create ‘equality before the law’ to encourage others in Ionia to join the revolt
- travels to Sparta / Athens to call for aid

Question 8

heroditus placing the blame of ionian revolt on aristogoras

Answer 8

Aristagoras acts in a selfish manner. He revolts because he owed the Persians and could not repay them. Fearing that he would lose their patronage and be punished for his financial failures, he turned in desperation to revolt. The revolt, then, was an attempt by Aristagoras to preserve his own power. Therefore, Herodotus places huge emphasis on the role of the individual.

Question 9

waters ‘‘heroditus overemphasises too much the personal here’’ when talking about aristogoras and ionian revolt

Answer 9

For a revolt to last 6 years and involve numerous states and peoples, it must have had some backing and support from the general population. Other factors almost certainly played a role:

· Discontent with the Persian-appointed local leaders (Hints with Aristagoras’ first policies)

· Discontent with Persian treatment of locals (hints with Scylax’ treatment)

· Discontent with tribute demands (elsewhere in Herodotus’ account he frames Darius as someone who expands and formalises tribute. Perhaps this involved an increase in payment requests from the Persians).

Question 10

why does heroditus place so much emphasis on aristogoras

Answer 10

It is likely that his attitudes reflected those of fellow Ionians in the 450s who may have developed a dislike towards Aristagoras. In this way, it reflects attitudes from after the revolt, not from the revolt itself.

It is noteworthy that Aristagoras himself died in 498 in Thrace as a failed exile fearing the punishment of Darius. Perhaps the Ionians blamed him for the eventual failures of the revolts themselves.

Question 11

why do the ionians revolt
heroditus account

Answer 11

Herodotus places most of the emphasis on Aristagoras, leader of Miletus. He appears to have been indebted to the Persians after requesting their help to expand his, and Persia’s holding to Naxos, but failing. As a result he had wasted Persian money and lost Persian men. Fearing reprisal from the

Persians, Aristagoras seeks to create a united revolt against Persian rule with people in Susa. He fails to achieve this and instead turns to Greeks for support. Part of this process was the democratisation of Miletos in the belief of rallying the people there behind his cause.

Question 12

what argument does aristogoras use to encourage greek unity with sparta and resistance
heroditus account

Answer 12

Desperate for support from mainland Greece, Aristagoras, leader of Miletus, appeals to Sparta for support. He calls on the Spartans to save their ‘kinsmen’ from Persian ‘slavery’ and described the Spartans as the ‘leaders’ of Hellas. Firstly, during his appeal to Sparta (5.49-5.53) Aristagoras appeals to Sparta by:

· Implying Sparta is the ‘leader of Hellas’ and that it shames them to allow Ionians to be slaves.

· Describing the Ionians as ‘slaves’ and calling on Sparta to ‘save their Ionian kinsmen from slavery’.

· Implying Persians are weak (they fight with bows) and are ‘easy to overcome’

· Promising Sparta vast wealth

Question 13

how sucsessful is the attempt to gain support of sparta after ionian revolt
heroditus account

Answer 13

Completely unsuccessful. Aristagoras is asked how long the travel to Susa would take and explains it would take them three months. Spartans dislike the idea of travelling three months away from their land.

They refuse to help after Aristagoras notes the travel time involved. He then appeals to Athens who support on the grounds that they are fellow kinsmen of the Athenian (Ionians originally came from the region of Athens) and they agree, supporting an expedition to Sardis which burns the city. However, Athens backs down on its original support and withdraws help (5.103). Over the succeeding book and chapters, Herodotus tells the story of the failure of the Ionian Revolt culminating in the defeat of the Ionian Revolt at the Battle of Lade (6.14).

Question 14

what arguments does aristogoras use to encourage athenian support
heroditus account

Answer 14

promising wealth of Asia and that Persians would be easily overcome.

· A new argument is on the grounds of ethnicity: “Milesians were settlers from Athens, whom it was only right to save seeing that they themselves were a very powerful people”. Interestingly, he makes an appeal to Ionian understanding of their own history, as discussed more in the Greek World notes.

Question 15

how sucsessful is aristagoras in seeking help from athenians
heroditus account

Answer 15

Much more successful – Herodotus pin this on the democratic nature of Athens. “The Athenians, now persuaded, voted to send twenty ships to aid the Ionians, appointing for their admiral Melanthius, a citizen of Athens who had an unblemished reputation. These ships were the beginning of troubles for both Greeks and foreigners”.

· The Ionians also gained the support of Eretria due to a repayment of past debts. Eretria sent five ships to Ionia.

Question 16

impact of the athenians joining the ionian revolt

Answer 16

Initially, the Ionian revolt was a success and the acropolis of Sardis, the regional capital was destroyed. Yet, the battle turns sour and the Athenians abandon support.
As the Greeks divide, eventually, the Persians muster a force strong enough to crush the rebels. Miletus is harshly punished with all women and children being enslaved and most men being killed in retribution.

Question 17

what does heroditus frame darius’ invasion as a attempt of 2 things

Answer 17

Take revenge against Athens and Eretria
– “they intended to subdue as many of the Greek cities as they could”. (6.44)

Question 18

heroditus likely overstating persian ambitions

Answer 18

Viewed from the Persian perspective, these initial expeditions were an attempt to defend their own borders not expand the Empire further.

Persia’s aim was to achieve stability in Ionia following the revolts. Mainland Greeks like Athens and Eretria were acting as external de-stabilising forces from the Persian perspective. They had sent dozens of ships in order to help the revolting Ionians. They had helped to burn down the Persian regional capital Sardis. From this perspective, the mainland Greeks were external threats. Hence, in order to achieve long-lasting peace within the Empire, the Persians needed to crush the external destablising forces.

· Herodotus himself gives an insight into this perspective. Following the Ionian revolt, Artaphrenes, Satrap in Sardis, institutes remarkable reforms within Ionian itself. Herodotus calls these reforms ‘beneficial’ (6.42) for the Ionians themselves. A remarkable detail! These reforms included:
Persian arbitration of inter-city disputes
Standardisation of tribute
Removal of tyrants and the implementation of democracies

Question 19

why do the greeks choose to resist persia during daruis invasion

Answer 19

Athens had little choice by Herodotus’ account in that Darius sought to punish the Athenians for their support of the Ionian revolt. Eretria was in the same camp.

Question 20

what arguments do greeks use to encourage greek unity during daruis’ invasion

Answer 20

Athens attempts to persuade the Spartans to support them. Their language is telling. At 6.106 they claim the conflict is of a choice between freedom and Persian slavery. If Sparta does not support the Athenians, Athens claims that “the Hellenes to fall into slavery at the hands of the foreigners”. In this manner the war is framed as a battle for the political freedom of Greeks against a barbarian enemy.

Question 21

how successful are each of the attempts to encourage greek unity during darius’ invasion

Answer 21

Not at all. Whilst Sparta was sympathetic to their ideas, they were unwilling to break their own customs. At 6.106 Spartans had a custom whereby on “on the ninth they could not go out to war

until the moon’s circle was full”. It happened to be that date, and thys the Spartans were unwilling to break their own law. Here we see the poleis working against collective unity for the Greeks.

Furthermore, Herodotus implies that most Greeks had given ‘Earth and water’ to the Persians. At 6.49 Herodotus notes ‘many of those dwelling on the mainland and from all the islanders’ suggesting that most Greeks were not willing to fight against Persia. The cause of this is probably twofold. Firstly, it reflects the successful Persian strategy of ‘divide and rule’. Secondly, it reflects the targeted nature of the expedition vs Athens and Eretria. Other states knew they just had to stand aside and seemed happy, for the most part, to do so.

Question 22

analysis of heroditys account of darius’ invasion

Answer 22

Herodotus frames the Battle of Marathon as a decisive moment and a great victory.

· At 6.113 he celebrated that they fought in a way ‘worthy of record’

· Later, at 7.139, he says, “But in truth, if anyone were to say that the Athenians were the saviour Greece, he would not be wide of the mark. For whatever position they took the struggle, that was the side sure to prevail. choosing that Greece should preserve her freedom, the Athenians roused to battle the other Greek states which had not yet gone over to the Persians and, after the gods, were responsible for driving the king off”.

Question 23

evans- heroditus was predisposed towards athens and therefore pro athenian

Answer 23

Herodotus wrote his book in Athens and spoke to an Athenian audience. Viewed in this way, he was saying what they wanted to hear!

· Celebrating Athens’ victories served as means to justify their future empire: the Delian League. The League rested in the notion that tribute was paid to Athens for mutual protection. Hence, Herodotus’ narrative served as a way to justify the Athenian Empire of the 440s, the context in which he wrote.

Question 24

xerxies aims for his invasion. crush revolts

Answer 24

By 484 a revolt in Egypt was crushed.

· By 482 a revolt in Babylonia was crushed.

· Only from 481 onwards he set his aims on Greece.
Hence, Greece should be seen in the context of these revolts. From the Persian perspective, the situation in Greece was a revolt and a threat to the stability of Persian rule. As noted above, the Persians considered the Greeks to be part of their Empire. the assault was a means of crushing Greek resistance, led by Athens.

Question 25

xerxies aims during his revolt, display persian power

Answer 25

Xerxes wanted the army to consciously reflect the diversity of the Empire. Herodotus is at pains to emphasise Xerxes’ army was composed of people from every quarter of the Persian Empire. no doubt this reflected the Persian Kings desires from the time. The lists composed by Darius for the Palace at Susa were probably replicated in the constitution of the army here. Herodotus claims the army was made up of 2.1 million people in total; a ludicrous figure. Most modern historians agree 50,000-200,000 is a more likely range. Despite this, the army was a large invading force, far greater than Darius’ previous force.

Question 26

neutrality, argos case study

Answer 26

Argos provides an excellent case study of the Greek response to the Persian threat since they were the first Greeks, in Herodotus’ narrative, to be asked to help the Greeks.

Unlike the other Greeks who put aside their own differences to ally against Persia, the Argives remained sceptical despite the reports that “the foreigner was stirring up war against Hellas” because they bitterly remembered that “six thousand of them had been lately slain” by a Spartan army (Herodotus 7.148.2). The Spartan denial of their demands for a portion of the military command led the Argives to decide that “it was better to be ruled by the foreigners” than to serve under Spartans and reject the alliance’s offer (7.149.3). At the Battle of Sepeiae, 494 BCE the Spartan forces of Cleomenes I defeated the Argives, fully establishing Spartan dominance in the Peloponnese. The Battle of Sepeia is infamous for holding the highest number of casualties within a battle during the classical Greek period – 6000 Argive hoplites were killed, many after taking refuge in The Sacred Grove of Apollo, which the Spartans burned down.

In the account of Argos Herodotus explores their reaction to the attempts of Athens to encourage Argos to join the Panhellenic alliance against Persia. Through the interaction we learn that Argos does not support the alliance, and the following reasons are suggested:

1. Oracle -> informs Argos to not trust their neighbours
2. Inter-poleis rivalry with Sparta -> Spartans and Argos had been in conflict recently in the Battle of Sepeiae where Argos lost 6,000 men. They wanted a 30-year truce with Sparta to allow their children to grow into men.

‘rather be ruled by barbarians than yield to the Spartans’ – 7.149.

3. Dispute over control of the army -> They demand joint command with Sparta, Sparta refuse.
4. Persian diplomacy/Persuasion of the Persians/divide and rule -> Claimed to have a shared ancestry since Perseus was born in Argos.
5. Persian show of strength / intimidation -> Xerxes does not kill spies because he wants the Greeks to know of the strength of his army and surrender. Perhaps the Argives did not want to lose men fighting Persia and then suffer further vs Sparta

Question 27

neutrality, gelon/syracuse case study

Answer 27

Likewise, the Hellenic League send ambassadors to Syracuse to seek support. Gelon, the tyrant of the city, replies with his reasons for reafusal (7.58-65)

· Greeks refused to support Syracuse when they were at war with ‘foreign’ Carthaginians

· Gelon suggests that he will support the Greeks, but only if his pre-eminent position as leader of the army will be recognised. Spratans instantly dismiss the request. Gelon then demands control of the fleet. This is refused by Athens. This demonstrates how the poleis was a force working against Hellenic unity.

· Gelon decides not to join forces and instead waits for the outcome of the battles. If the Persians were victorious, Gelon would have offered tribute, Earth and Water to the Persians.

Question 28

neutrality, corcyra case study

Answer 28

Ambassadors to Corcyra arrive at 7.168 to try to gain their support. Initially, the Corcyrans promise their support for the Greeks. Yet, when the time came, they changed their mind because:

· ‘they had no hope the Greeks would prevail, but thought that the Persian would win a great victory and be lord of Hellas’

· They hoped to be able to say to the king that we whose power is as great as any and who could have furnished as many ships as any state save Athens,—we, when the Greeks attempted to gain our aid in this war, would not resist you nor do anything displeasing to you.”

· They gave the formal excuse to the Greeks that the wind was too strong for their ships….

Question 29

neutrality, case study

Answer 29

Finally, ambassadors arrive at Crete at 7.169-71. They used an Oracle from Delphi to justify their neutrality.

Question 30

why do people medize

Answer 30

Medising meant to go over to the Persian side. The Persians are often called the Medes in Herodotus’/Greek accounts even though they were ethnically different groups (albeit related linguistically). During Darius’ invasion, Herodotus notes that the king demanded the submission of earth and water as a sign of submission. ‘many’ of mainland poleis and ‘all the islanders’ where the messengers were sent complied (6.49), most notable Aegina. Herdotous, however, does not provide a coherent list at this stage. Later, during Xerxes’ account he does provide a more comprehensive list with associated reasonings.

Question 31

northan greeks medizing

Answer 31

When Xerxes’ fleet arrived at the mainland, they sent requests for tribute to Greeks. They received tribute and military support from “the Thessalians, Dolopes, Enienes, Perrhaebians, Locrians, Magnesians, Melians, Achaeans of Phthia, Thebans, and all the Boeotians except the men of Thespiae and Plataea” (7.132.1). Therefore, despite the increased cooperation under the Athenian and Spartan aegis, “far more Greeks fought among than fought against the Persian-led invaders in 480 BC” (Cartledge 81).2

Question 32

why did damaratus medize

Answer 32

Individuals witihin poleis which were opposed to Persia also sought to change the politics of their cities. In Athens, leading politicians were sometimes accused of medizing. some have suggested that this became a political weapon rather than a reality. For instance, a cunning politician could accuse some of ‘medising’ in order to have them ostracised. This occurred against Themistocles in 472 BCE. Yet in other cities this was a reality. Herodotus tells of Demaratus, king of Sparta, who is best known for serving as an advisor to Xerxes I of Persia during his invasion of Greece in 480 BC

• self-interest: Demaratus saw the Persians as a way of regaining his control of Sparta

His co-ruler, Cleomenes I, was firmly anti-Persian, and this resulted in tension between the two men. Demaratus was in exile from 491. Herodotus notes his siding with Persia at 7.3.

Question 33

why did thessalians medize

Answer 33

. The thessalians initially wanted to join the Hellenic League but were forced to medise out of ‘necessity’ according to Herodotus.

Why?

-Abandonment by the Hellenic league. Greeks who initially came to defend them at the pass of Olympus retreated after they heard news that the Persian army was very large. Herodotus claims that out of ‘fear’ the Hellenic forces retreated back to the Isthmus to mount a defence there.

Question 34

theban soldiers, why did they medize

Answer 34

, in individual battles, Greeks medise. At the Battle of Thermopylae, as the Battle was going poorly for the Greeks, Herodotus notes that the Thebans abandoned the cause and decided to surrender to the Persians and join their cause. The Thebans claimed they were under compulsion and did not really want to fight.

Question 35

analysis of Herodotus account of medizing and neutrality

Answer 35

Herodotus’ representation of most of those who remain neutral or medise is not neutral. They are mostly framed as ‘traitors’. While some accounts (e.g. Argos) are a little more sympathetic – he says ‘others behaved more shamefully’, still implying that they were shameful - on the whole he portrays these groups negatively. He frames their decisions as abandoning their country, Greece. Consider:

· At 8.74 Herodotus claims ‘If I may speak freely, by staying neutral they medized’

· Gelon’s selfish request to lead the army

· At 7.138 Greeks who sided with Persians had ‘no stomach’ for war

· At 7.132 Herodotus emphasises Greeks would punish those who ‘surrendered themselves to the Persians’

Herodotus’ framing of the Wars is between Greek freedom and Persian tyranny. In his framing, these Greeks not involved in the Hellenic League were giving up their ‘freedom’ and submitting to Persian tyranny / slavery (7.147).

His views likely reflect the moral superiority that the Greek victors felt after the wars.

Question 36

rational responses for medizing or staying neutral. fear of persia

Answer 36

. medizing was a rationale response. Persia were a powerful Empire, very likely to take over much of Greece. Resistance is likely to have been futile. Indeed, resistance led to the destruction of Athens during Xerxes’ invasion. ‘medising’ – an inherently negative word similar to ‘collaborators’ during World War Two during the Nazi occupation. In fact, medizing was a rational response. Persia tended to leave local systems alone, so long as they provided tributes to the king. medizing was a way of local elites maintaining their powers by allying with an external power. Furthermore, if earth and water was given, Persia would probably have treated them reasonably well. The submission of most poleis implies that self-preservation instincts overrode any notions of solidarity with fellow Greeks.

Question 37

more objective view as to why people remained neutral/ medized, athens

Answer 37

Clearly, Athens was a target for the Persian invasion due to their support for the Ionian Revolt. Other Greek cities did not have the same dispute with the Persians. Indeed, many viewed this as an Athenian issue that they did not need to get involved with.

Question 38

medizing as a literary effect

Answer 38

. By spending a considerable amount of time focusing on those who betray the cause of Hellas and side with the Persians, Herodotus makes acts of resistance even more heroic. Indeed – herdotous (1.1) wanted to record the achievements of people and ensure they would be remembered. Those he wanted to be remembered were clearly those who were brave and chose the path of resistance. The is especially true when it comes to Athens. Athens heroic defence and attempt to muster an alliance appears even greater when many other Greeks were turning away. Consider, again, Athens is described as the ‘saviour of Greece’ at 7.138.

Question 39

how do the greeks divide over strategy

Answer 39

Prior to the Battle of Salamis, the Hellenic League was in a state of division. They had just heard news of the Persian destruction of the Acropolis at Athens and in other northern Greek regions. Different Greek admirals take different positions.

Question 40

divisions within the battle of salamis. Themistocles, the Athenian admiral, argues,

Answer 40

If the Greeks abandon Salamis there will be no country to fight for
If the Hellenic League dissolves, Greece will lose
If the Greeks retreat to the isthmus (the small neck of land connecting Attica and the Peloponnese) then you will lose because of the open water
Megara, Aegina, and Salamis can be saved by fighting at Salamis. If they retreat to the Isthmus, they will fall to Persia
The advantage of fighting at Salamis was that the narrow straight works to the Greek’s advantage
Threatens to withdraw Athens ships and sail to Italy if they do not fight

Question 41

divisions before the battle of salamis, The Peloponnesians (including Eurybiades, the Spartan, and Adimantus, the Corinthian) argue:

Answer 41

Originally hope to retreat back to the Isthmus and protect the Peloponnese.

· Themistocles has no city anymore and therefore no right to speak

· Eventually, Eurybiades is convinced (but then opposition grows and Peloponnesians threaten retreat)

Question 42

divisions after salamis, Themistocles hopes to pursue the Persians back to the Hellespont. He argues

Answer 42

The Hellespont bridge could be destroyed

Question 43

divisions after the battle of salamis, , Eurybiades is more cautious. He argues:

Answer 43

Cutting the Persians off from Asia would be a disaster since the king would be compelled to remain in Europe

· He would have to renew his campaign against Greece for resources and would take resources from Greek cities

· Therefore, the Persian king should be allowed to return to Asia

Question 44

at the victory of the battle of salamis, heroditus list if those who fought at salamis. what does he note

Answer 44

21 Greek cities provided ships and a mass total of 378 ships
He is at pains to emphasise and list the precise amount of ships each poleis contributed. Hence, He states,
“The following took part in the war: from the Peloponnese, the Lacedaemonians provided sixteen ships; the Corinthians the same number as at Artemisium; the Sicyonians furnished fifteen ships”

Question 45

Prior to the Battle of Plataea, 479 Herodotus notes that Xerxes makes an attempt to divide the Greeks. He offers the Athenians an alliance as part of his divide and rule strategy. Athens rejects Persia’s proposal, arguing

Answer 45

They have a ‘zeal for freedom’

· They will never come to terms with the ‘barbarian’

· They will fight without ceasing, ‘trusting in the aid of the gods and the heroes whom he disregarded’

Question 46

focusing on greek divisions distracts from barbarian success

Answer 46

By keenly focusing on Greek divisions, he can lay blame domestically on the failures of the Greeks; rather than praising barbarians. Knowing the outcome, this serves to undermine those who refused to get involved (and who, if we take a more objective view, rightly did not get involved).

Question 47

heroditus was keen to remind the greeks of those who were heroic and those who were cowardly

Answer 47

“In my honest opinion, if they were not against the Persians, then they were with them.”

Herodotus views Greek disunity in the face a collective threat as scandalous. Herodotus’ narrative frames the Persian invasion as one of liberty / freedom against servitude / oppression. Herodotus has Miltiades, the Athenian general, state when encouraging Callimachus, another military figure, to engage the Persian at the Battle of Marathon (6.109) ‘Callimachus, it is now in your hands to enslave Athens or make her free’. This framing of ‘enslavement’ vs ‘freedom’, from Herodotus’ perspective makes it farcical that Greek, collectively, would not fight for their freedoms. Therefore, from Herodotus’ point of view, Greek disunity = failure.

Question 48

scholar; frank wallbank

Answer 48

“the autonomy of the polis was a force working against, and not in the direction of Hellenic unity”.

Question 49

scholar; paul cartledge

Answer 49

“far more Greeks fought among than fought against the Persian-led invaders in 480 BC
“in cold historical fact, the defeat [of Persia] had been effected by a shaky of improvised coalition of a mere thirty or forty Greek states [poleis] - out of more than seven hundred in the Aegean world alone; and the Athenians alliance was not a Hellenic as Athenian propaganda maintained”

Question 50

scholar; stadter

Answer 50

argues that Herodotus attempted to show how Greek victory over the Persians was only possible when the different poleis – particularly the land power of Sparta and the sea power of Athens – combined and realised they needed each other. “In the great crisis of the Persian invasion, Athens and Sparta led the cities of Greece to victory, but their exceptional nobility and courage was born in a stew of ambitions for domination, petty arguments, and rash action. The struggles of Argos, Aegina, and Corinth to play their own part enrich the canvas with themes of defeat, injustice, and tyranny”.

Question 51

scholar; waters

Answer 51

argues that Herodotus frames the Persian Wars in a misleading way. “our image of Achaemenid Persia is usually one of a tyrannical enemy that unleashed an overwhelming onslaught against the freedom-loving Greeks, who, because of their societies values and virtues, were able to defeat them”