The Reality Of Persia Flashcards
geography of the Persian empire
The Persian Empire ruled over a vast region of the middle east between 551BCE and 331BCE. Throughout this period much of the regions controlled by the Persians remained static, despite border regions shifting over time
This vast territory, with huge geographical and cultural diversity, represented the largest empire the world had ever seen at the time of its creation.
Persia’s geographical issues, scale/ the land-biased nature of the empire
. Sea is easier to travel on. For the Roman Empire, a useful comparison, the coastline of the Mediterranean worked as a network/highway to connect the empire. For Persia, this was not possible. The Persians got around this was a successful road system known as the Royal Road. According to Herodotus the road connected the region from Sardis to Susa, and mounted messengers were supposed to travel 1,677 miles (2,699 km) from Susa to Sardis in nine days; the journey took ninety days on foot.
geographical issues in persia, diversity
. When we refer to the ‘Persian Empire’ we should be clear that we are referring to the ruling elite. The religious and cultural diversity was the defining feature of the empire.
persias geographical issues, darius
claims to rule 23 different nationalities in the Bisitun Inscription. Across the empire there were dozens of languages spoken, dozens of religious beliefs, and dozens of differing cultural practices. Any regime, modern or ancient, would struggle to govern such a diverse area. On both of these issues the Persians develop effective solutions: Pax Persica and the Persian Royal Road. More on both of these later.
who were the persians
Firstly they were the ruling elite of the empire – stemming from the south of Iran. Most people in the Persian Empire were not Persians. But most people in the ruling elite of the Empire were
how do Persian kings justify their rule, legitimacy
To pacify conquered lands, the Achaemenid dynasty needed to create a sense of legitimacy, that they had the right to rule. It seems that members of Achaemenid dynasty consciously constructed a sense of legitimacy not through military might but a call to historical lineages and local traditions
the cyrus cylinder being the way kings legitimised their rule
Cyrus refers to his ancestor’s legitimacy. By identifying himself as the descendent of the King of Anshan, Cyrus is claiming his family hold the right to control a vast region.
Anshan was an important city in the Neo-Elamite Empire, a regional power in the seventh century BCE. The capital city of this Empire was Anshan, and it stretched across the Iranian Plateau into Mesopotamia. As a result, Cyrus could legitimately claim his ancestors had the right to control Babylon.
the text depicted on the cyrus cylinder
'’I am Cyrus, king of the world, great king, mighty king, king of Babylon, king of Sumer and Akkad, king of the four quarters, the son of Cambyses, great king, king of Anšan, grandson of Cyrus, great king, king of Anšan, descendant of Teispes, great king, king of Anšan, of an eternal line of kingship, whose rule Bêl and Nabu love, whose kingship they desire for their hearts’ pleasure. When I entered Babylon in a peaceful manner, I took up my lordly abode in the royal palace amidst rejoicing and happiness.’’
waters view on the cyrus cylinder
Waters (2004) argues that this was a conscious adoption designed in part to ‘legitimise himself and locate Persian rule in Mesopotamian norms’.
The intention was as follows:
· Cyrus sought to link his family with the history of the Elamite Empire who had used this title from around 2,000 BCE
· Cyrus was establishing himself with a ‘city’. It was the norm in Mesopotamia to have ‘city-kings’, of which the Persians were not accustomed.
· It appears to have only been used locally and for a short period – no other Persian king used this title.
· But furthermore, the title of King of Anshan had few other claimants. Therefore, by adopting the title Cyrus could both claim to be a legitimate ruler and also did not foster any potential threats.
In these two senses, Cyrus was attempting to portray himself as a legitimate successor, not as a foreign conquering king.
cyrus use of local titles in the cyrus cylinder
’ may appear hubristic and arrogant to a modern (in indeed Greek) listener, it too had a local tradition. Sargon (2334-2284 BCE) had initially developed the phrase ‘King of the World’ whilst ruling Akkad, a city not far from Babylon. Likewise, Narram-Sin had used the phase ‘King of the Four Quarters’ in 2254-2218BCE.
This suggests that Cyrus is actually quite sensitive to local traditions and issues. He is not attempting to import his own political culture, but is instead appropriating a culture that already exists for his own benefits. Viewed in this light, Cyrus appears to be someone who fully understood Babylonian customs and traditions and was willing to use these to justify his reign.
The language used has a distinctively Babylonian frame of reference, not a Persian one.
cyrus claiming his legitimacy in the Cyrus cylinder
Cyrus claims that he was taken by the hand of Marduk Cyrus claims Marduk ‘commanded him to go to Babylon…. Like a friend and companion he walked by his side’. Marduk was the city-god of Babylon and is unlikely to be the god that Cyrus himself believed in. yet, he was willing to use local understanding to claim the right to rule.
Naturally, it should therefore be recognised that the Cyrus Cylinder is a from of Propaganda designed to win over the population. Yet, Cyrus was considerate in his efforts to appeal to local traditions and ways of ruling. He could have simply ruled by force but he actively tried to construct his own legitimacy.
Of course, all of this was propaganda. Yet it shows Cyrus to be careful in appealing to local customs.
The Hieroglyphic inscription of Udjahorresnet. cambyses claiming his legitimacy
provides an account of his rule from the perspective of an Egyptian Naval Commander. Udjahorresnet served during the Egyptian Pharaohs preceding Cambyses, but was incorporated into the bureaucracy of Persia too. It seems Udjahorresnet defected to the Persians before or during Cambyses invasion. Cambyses welcomed him into his court and gave him a quite important role as a physician. His statue provides a biography of his life and good deeds and was placed in a temple around the year 519.
Became ‘Great King of Upper and Lower Egypt’ – these were Egyptian titles
Adopting the personal name ‘Mesuti-Ra’ – offspring of Ra (the Egyptian Sun God) thereby having semi-divine status in the Egyptian tradition)
darius and the bisitun inscription. darius establishing his personal legitimacy
The Inscription records the events leading up to Darius’ successful accession to the Persian throne. It states that Cambyses killed his brother Bardiya and that someone claiming to be Bardiya seized power. Gaumata, the individual claiming to be Baridya, was a usurper who was actually a Magus. Darius refers to himself defeating Gaumata’s coup, which he refers to as ‘the Lie’, and restoring order in the Empire. Darius then described the other rebel kings who took advantage of the lack of a natural heir (since Cyrus had only had two sons – Bardiya and Cambyses). Darius was not the son of the former king and this posed challenges for the succession. He states 9 rebel kings rose up to defeat him, and he crushed every revolt with the grace of Ahuramazda. At least that’s his claim!
how did darius claim his legitimacy visually
Darius is represented in a dominant position over those who rebelled. The imagery is designed to convey the power and authority of Darius as a king.
The location of the inscription is designed, in part, to convey power. Located 66m high, on the Persian Royal Road, next to Mount Bisitun. All of this conveys power!
Darius’ representation is noteworthy, he is larger than the other individuals and stands in a prominent position, crushing his opponents. Note Gaumata, the ‘Liar king’, is being stepped on and defeated by Darius
the rebel kings have chains around their necks and hands tied behind their backs, showing they have been defeated and enslaved
Darius’ reliance on military force is illustrated by the presence of his armed guards behind him
Representation of Ahuramazda demonstrates his sense of divine support
darius justifying his ancestrial link to cyrus, in his statement of legitimacy
I am Darius, the Great King, King of Kings, King of Persia, King of lands, the son of Hystaspes, the grandson of Arsames, an Achaemenid.
Darius the King says: ‘My father is Hystaspes; the father of Hystapses (is) Arsames; the father of Arsames (is) ariaramnes; the father of Ariaramnes (is) Teispes, the father of Teipses (is) Achaemenes.
Darius the King says: for that reason we are called Achaemenids.
how did the persian kings justify their rule, importance of the ahuramazda
According to the inscription, Persian kingship represents the will of the chief god, Ahuramazda. The role of the king is to implement the God’s will and to act within the dualities of Right and Wrong; Truth and Falsehood, Loyalty and Rebellion. On each of these it is the King’s duty to stick to the ‘positive’ trait.
how did the persian kings justify their rule, restoring order
In the First Inscription, Darius accounts that when the world was in chaos, Ahuramazda returned Darius as king to ‘subdue it’.
how did the persian kings justify their rule, the importance of expansion
His success as a leader is referenced in the phrase ‘the spear of a Persian man has gone far’ under his rule. This emphasis on expansion and securing lands for the Empire is illustrative of ‘success’. He places great emphasis on all the countries he controls and those that ‘pay tribute’ to him. Note the inclusion of the Greeks: from Darius’ perspective these are part of the empire!
how to persian kings justufy their rule, qualities and behaviours
Acceptable / honourable traits are noted throughout the inscription. Of note:
o § 2: a ‘friend of the Right, and not a friend of the Wrong’.
o § 2: ‘It is not my desire that the weak man should suffer injustice at the hands of the strong’ (fairness/protection)
o § 3: ‘I am not hot-tempered’ (calm/controlled)
o § 4: rewarding those who do good; punishing those who cause harm
o § 5: ‘what a man says against a man, does not convince me, until I hear the testimony of both’ (just)
o § 8-9: ‘I am a good commander’, ‘I am a good horseman’ ‘bowman’ (physical ability and skills as a military general / military commander)
persian kings representing themselves in art
When representing themselves in their art, the Persian kings were careful to do two things. Firstly, they sought to show their power and might. But secondly, the Persian kings sought to emphasise their respect to the people of their empire.
the inscription of darius robe
A great god is Ahuramazda, who created this earth, who created yonder sky, who created man, who created happiness for man, and who made Darius king.This is the statue, made of stone, which Darius ordered to be made in Egypt. This is how everyone who will see this in the future, will know that the Persian man ruled in Egypt.
I am Darius, the great king, king of kings, king of all peoples, king in this great earth far and wide, the son of Hystaspes, an Achaemenid.King Darius says: May Ahuramazda protect me and what I did!
darius robe emphasis of the support of the ahurasazda, made darius king
The phrase ‘everyone who will see this in the future, will know that the Persian man ruled in Egypt’ is a powerful one. In this light, the mere existence of the statue is illustrative of the belief of the Persian king about his own power. Darius’ consciously ordered Egyptians to construct the statue as a statement of his control over them.
the left- and right-hand sides of the base are decorated with two times twelve figures, which represent twenty-four subject nations. Figures looking to the right are on the left-hand side of the statue, those looking to the left are on the right-hand side. The latter represent Iranian nations, while the figures looking to the right are non-Iranian. Once more, here, we see the emphasis on the vast range of subject peoples who were part of Darius’ great empire.
darius using imagery on darius robe.
To convey power. Here is the Persian king ordering Egyptians to make a statue of himself. This in itself is a statement of power. But on top of this the Persian king states his aim: ‘This is how everyone who will see this in the future, will know that the Persian man ruled in Egypt’!
- To convey sensitivity to his subjects. Darius also sought to be aware of the need to be respectful to local traditions, hence the heavy emphasis on Egyptian frames of cultural reference.
lloyd llewellyn jones, the core belied that justified empire was the notion of pax persica, the persian peace
Jones justifies this notion by arguing that Persian rulers viewed their Empire as a project of harmonious cooperation. Subject and the leaders had obligations to one another. Subject had to bring tribute. Leaders had to provide protection. But with these mutual obligations came mutual benefits – the Persian peace. Subjects were able to maintain their culture in rich diversity. The Persian leaders were extremely tolerant. There was no form of ‘Persianisation’. Likewise, in return, the Achaemenids gained wealth, power, and prestige.
persian empire representation, east staircase of the apadana at persepolis
More on Persepolis below. For now, we will consider the Eastern Staircase of the Apadana at Persepolis. Built during King Darius I the Great’s reign (r. 522-486), but was finished by Xerxes. In this large hall, the great king received the tributes from all the subjects in the Achaemenid Empire, and gave presents in return.
The East Stairs of The Apadana itself has a stunning portrayal of all of the peoples of the Empire sending their tributes to the King of Persia in visually artistic representation. It represents an idealised portrayal of Empire, demonstrating and celebrating the Persian Peace.
persian peace represented through diversity on the east staircase
The East Staircase of the Apadana is an extraordinary celebration of the diversity of the Persian Empire. It depicts each (23 in total) ethnicity in all their diverse glory. The Nuabians appear with African physical features, the Saka appear with their distinctive pointed hats, they all wear distinctive clothing. We can assume these portraits would have looked even more diverse with different colours in their original form.
persian peace represented through tribute on the east staircase
Each country is represented bringing their tribute to the King in artistic form with a unique set of characteristics for each group. For instance the Bactrians bring their camels from Northern Afghanistan; while the Nubians carry an ivory tusk. The Lydians bring Jewellery, whilst the Greeks bring wool and fabrics and pottery. Each people have a particular feature that is distinctive to them.
persian peace represented through benign on the east staircase
Every ethnic group appears walking hand in hand with their masters and is led by the hand of a Persian. We know this figure to be a Persian since they wear an Akinakes in their belts and wear distinctive Persian clothing. This representation is quite different from the Egyptian, Assyrian, and Roman representations of empire, which show the subjects as POWs or defeated. Here we see a physical manifestation of the mutually beneficial nature of the Persian Empire.
persian peace represented through timeless on the east staircase
Sculpting these images in stone make the empire appear to be a timeless institution. Stone conveys permanence and the permanent nature of Persian rule.
persian peace represented through diversity = power on the east staircase
By carefully depicting the empire in all its diversity, the Persians were conveying their power. As tribute bearers or visitors walked to the Apadana they would see, all around them, the great diverse Empire the Persians had created. The Staircase, then, was also a display of Persian power over a diverse range of people.
darius susa foundation charter
A similar message is conveyed at the base of the Palace of Darius in Susa (more on this below). Similarly, to the East Staircase, what is promoted here is an idealised image of the Persian Empire – a range of peoples working together with their unique skills for the benefit of all. But most importantly, under the king’s service.
how was the persian empire represented on the darius susa foundation charter, diverse skills
In the charter, Darius celebrates the fact that the workers stem from different regions. The stone cutters were Greek, the goldmsiths were Medes and Egyptians, the wood workers were the Sardians and the Egyptians, the brickworkers were Babylonians, etc. These range of peoples all contribute their individual skill to produce a wonderful palace.
how was the persian empire represented on the darius susa foundation charter, diverse resources
Darius is at pains to emphasise the origins of the resources used in the construction of the palace. The timber, he claims, stems from Lebanon. The gold from Sardis. The Lapis Lazuli from Sogdiana. The Turquoise stone from Chorasmia. The ebony from Egypt. The ivory from Ethiopia. The stone from Elam, etc.
how was the persian empire represented on the darius susa foundation charter, mutual benefits
Diverse skills and resources, when brought together (only under Imperial rule) can create something spectacular.
how was the persian empire represented on the darius susa foundation charter, respect for diversity
the king celebrates the diversity of his empire as at Persepolis.
how was the persian empire represented on the darius susa foundation charter, power
More cynically, the king is expressing his vast authority. Being able to call on a vast range of people, and draw on their resources, to create a Palace for himself, was a means of expressing his power. No one reading the foundation charter could come away with any other impression.
how is the persian empire represented through the cyrus cylinder, popularity
“all the people of Babylon, the whole of the land of Sumer and Akkad, princes and governors knelt before him, kissed his feet, rejoiced at his kingship”. (18) and that Cyrus spared the people from ‘disaster and oppression’ (19).
