The Rise Of Mussolini And The Creation Of A Fascist Dictatorship 1919-26 Flashcards

(90 cards)

1
Q

Tensions due to end of WWI

A
  • ex-soldiers felt betrayed
  • campaign against Austria had been funded through foreign loans + printing more money
  • debt + inflation
  • rising tension in the south as returning conscripts wanted promised land reforms - forcefully occupied farmland
  • in the north there was tension between exempted men vs returning soldiers
  • lack of unity
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2
Q

Paris Peace Conference at Versailles

A
  • January 1919
  • PM Vittorio Orlando argued that’s all land promised in the 1915 Treaty of London should be given + Fiume
  • it had a small Italian population and so should be given on the principle of nationality
  • US president Woodrow Wilson + British PM David Lloyd + French PM Georges Clemenceau - rejected claim on Fiume + Dodecanese Islands + part of the Balkans
  • Italy’s war contributions didn’t justify its territorial claims
  • Orlando + Sonnino argued he needed the land to justify the war effort to the Italians
  • Orlando walked out of the conference in April 1919
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3
Q

Paris Peace Conference 1919 May onwards

A
  • Britain + France took Germany’s African colonies in Italy’s absence
  • Orlando tried to return in May 1919 - his proposals were ignored
  • June 1919 Vittorio Orlando resigned as PM
  • Italy acquired Trente + Trieste + Istria + northern Dalmatia as part of the Treaty of London 1915
  • failure to gain Fiume or African colonies undermined the liberal gov
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4
Q

Mutilated Victory Myth

A
  • used by Italian nationalists and Italian irredendists to describe their dissatisfaction concerning territorial rewards in return for war efforts
  • national shame
  • disgraced the 600k soldiers who lost their lives in the war
  • made the liberal gov seem weak
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5
Q

Francesco Nitti

A
  • replaced Orlando as PM
  • Italy’s weak economy + need for coal + money of the Allies meant that Nitti played down Italy’s claims
  • wanted to maintain strong relation with the Allies
  • allowed Yugoslavia to take Dalmatia
  • allowed Fiume to be a neutral city under the protection of the League of Nations
  • reduced military spending + issued amnesty to Italian soldiers that had deserted
  • condemned as the Cagoia - coward
  • fascists would focus on the mutilated victory idea
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6
Q

Occupation of Fiume

A
  • nationalist right-wing group challenged the gov in Rome - young men + demobilised soldiers
  • most prominent leader was Gabriele d’Annunzio - had led protests in 1914 calling for Italy’s entry to WW1
  • 12 September 1919 Gabriele + 2k men made of ex-soldiers + Futurists + students seized the port of Fiume without fight
  • the Italian gov failed to act for 15 months - d’Annunzio + small army removed on Christmas 1920
  • Gabriele had shown the frailties of the gov + power of assertive nationalism
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7
Q

What did Mussolini learn from Gabriele d’Annunzio

A
  • assertive nationalism
  • use of squadrons
  • balcony speeches
  • use of reporters for PR
  • posters as propaganda
  • processions
  • parties
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8
Q

Futurists

A
  • cultural + artistic movement - formed in 1909 by Filippo Tommaso Marinetti
  • celebrated violence + patriotism + destruction
  • believed war would bring about a new more militaristic society
  • despised liberal system + idea of mutilated victory
  • some of the founding members of the Fascists - disappointed that Mussolini wasn’t more radical
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9
Q

Gabriele d’Annunzio

A
  • was the most famous poet in Italy during WW1
  • led protests calling for Italy’s entry into WW1
  • believed war would be a unifying force that would lead to a more militaristic society
  • dropped 400k leaflets propaganda over Vienna in a plane
  • fascist slogan Me ne frego - I don’t give a damn
  • emotional speeches
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10
Q

Post war economic crisis

A
  • millions of demobilised soldiers flooded the job market
  • by November 1919 unemployment reached 2 million
  • many companies like Fiat + Ansaldo + Ilva struggled to stay afloat post-war
  • Ansaldo + Ilva - major munitions companies - collapsed in 1921 causing a banking crisis
  • Banca Di Sconta - major bank - had been tied to Ansaldo - forced to close
  • economic recession in late 1920
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11
Q

Post-War Social Discontent

A
  • after WW1 ended, the previously jailed anarchist + socialist radicals were released
  • major strikes + factory occupations + violent riots
  • membership of the socialist unions had grown from 250k in 1918 to 2 million by 1920
  • in 1919 rising food prices had caused riots in northern + central Italy - protestors looted granaries +shops
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12
Q

Specific strikes 1920

A
  • January railway strikes
  • April + September telegraph worker strikes
  • July army troops’ strike
  • September (largest strike) - factory worker strike with over 400k workers taking over factories + flying red communist flag + black anarchist flags for nearly 4 weeks - gov eventually ended the strike
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13
Q

Biennio Rosso

A
  • translates to Two Red Years
  • period between 1919-20
  • when left-wing socialist + communist organisations were at their peak
  • created fear + chaos that encouraged people to support the fascists for stability
  • fascists were violently confronting the left-wing movement
  • liberal gov trying to find a compromise with the workers
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14
Q

Post-War Countryside

A
  • the gov had made big land reform promises during WW1
  • only some land made available for peasants to buy - didn’t satisfy the number of farmer demanding land for farming
  • many peasants seized land from the owners - simply marched into barren + uncultivated land and planted a flag and set to work
  • land occupations alarmed wealthy landowners
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15
Q

Rural socialist unions

A
  • rural socialist unions were particularly strong in areas like Ferrara + Bologna - controlled employment of rural labourers
  • excluded farm labourers that weren’t socialist union members
  • carried out violent attacks on workers + farmers who refused to join union
  • landowners felt threatened by rising rural socialist militancy + weak gov response
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16
Q

Changed before 1919 election

A
  • Italian parliamentary elections in 1919 took place against a backdrop of political upheaval
  • introduction of new law allowing Italians who served at front + men over 21 to vote
  • meant that the amount of people allowed to vote increased by 11 million
  • Changed voting method to Proportional Representation
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17
Q

Proportional Representation

A
  • an electoral system
  • voters cast their votes for political parties
  • the percentage of the vote that each party receives translates into the percentage of seats that the party receives in the legislature
  • makes it difficult for a single party to win a majority
  • allows public to have a greater influence on which parties are elected to parliament
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18
Q

Partito Popolare Italiano

A
  • PPI set up in 1919 - led by priest Luigi Sturzo
  • not officially affiliated with the Vatican + didn’t mention the Roman Question in the manifesto
  • policy pushed for Catholic interests + supported land reform
  • campaigned for more farming areas to be made available to the peasants
  • strength of Catholic feeling + popular agitation for land reform made PPI strong
  • hostility towards the liberal gov
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19
Q

PSI post-war

A
  • had become more radical
  • refused to work with the liberals post-war
  • supported strikes + factory occupations
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20
Q

Result and Impact of the 1919 elections

A
  • PSI won greatest share of the vote with 32% - led to 156 deputies - 3x amount in 1913
  • PPI won 101 seats
  • neither party had a majority + weren’t willing to work together in coalition
  • old liberal gov remained in power with several coalitions until 1922
  • nothing appeared to have actually changed
  • Nitti’s gov fell in 1920 and the country turned to Giolitti again
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21
Q

Fasci di Combattimento

A
  • on March 23 1919 Mussolini put together the representative of approx 20 ex-servicemen’s leagues to form this organisation
  • national organisation of ex-soldiers
  • his experiences in the trenches made him more nationalistic
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22
Q

Trincerocrazia

A
  • extreme nature of war + camaraderie felt by those fighting together in war
  • a melting away of class divisions in order to focus on Italy
  • a sense of war consciousness
  • the trinceristi - returning soldiers - had the strength + morals to lead a new Italy
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23
Q

Fasci di Combattimento Party Programme

A
  • anticlerical + wanted confiscation of church property + abolishment of monarchy + 8 hour working day
  • wanted a republic + suffrage extend to women + younger Italians + senate abolishment
  • nationalisation of armaments industry + progressive taxation
  • confiscation of profits made by large companies in the war
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24
Q

Make up of Fasci di Combattimento

A
  • weren’t distinguished from other left-wing parties
  • only approx 50 people attended the original meeting
  • membership reached 3k by June 1919
  • predominately made up of arditi - crack troop commandos formed in WW1 - had worn black shirts
  • black shirts + skull flag became became the identity of the party
  • members commonly known as Blackshirts
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25
Squadrismo
- fascists formed themselves into small military units + squads - the members were referred to as **squadristi** - they answered the socialist threat with **extreme violence**
26
1919 election fascist outcome
- they won **less than 5k votes** + **ZERO seats** - socialists had paraded a coffin symbolism Mussolini’s political career through Milan
27
Squadrismo attack in Milan
- *April 15 1919* a fascist squad of **250** attacked a socialist demonstration in **Milan** + burned down offices of **Avanti!** - **3 socialists + 1 fascist killed** - the Milan attack hadn’t been organised by Mussolini but helped him realise the **power of violence** - none of the squadristi were arrested - the gov made **no attempt to close down the groups** + didn’t condemn it - the gov tolerated the squadrismo as they feared the socialist revolution more
28
Mussolini’s armed squads
- organised like military units under a **ras** - commanding officer - members wore the uniform of a black shirt + carried a revolver + **manganello** - club - attacked socialist councils + supporters - weapons were supplied by **local police + army barracks** - key PSI members targeted - **beaten** + forced to **drink castor oil** + cases of **murder** - in the *first 5 months of 1921* **200 killed** + **1k** wounded by the fascist violence - broke the power of socialism + created myth that the fascists had saved Italy from a socialist revolution
29
Popularity of the squadrismo
- wealthy landowners happy to see **socialist land leagues destroyed** - brought an end to the attempt for land reform - the soldiers had saved Italy from the Austrian in WW1 + now saved Italy from the traitors + radicals - popular with those who feared a **socialist revolution** - popular with the elite ruling class - **military**
30
Political Legitimacy
- respectable liberal politicians shared the belief that the squads were restoring **law + order** + rescuing the country from radicalism - **police stood by** and allowed the fascists to attack socialists + sometimes joined in - success of violence against socialism + shift to the right showed in the *May 1921* elections
31
Squad use during the elections
- fascists squads attacked **socialist campaign meetings + intimidated voters** - **police lent vehicles** + **army gave weapons** to the fascists to help - **Italian judiciary showed leniency** towards fascists accused of violence against socialists
32
Result of 1921 election
- PSI achieved highest number of votes - fascists achieved **7%** of the vote + **35 parliamentary seats** - gave Mussolini new respectability + authority as a member of Parliament - legitimised fascism as a **political force** - as a **deputy** Mussolini benefited from **immunity to prosecution** - a **police charge** against Mussolini for **intent to overthrow the gov by violence** was quietly dropped
33
The New Programme
- *May 1920* the second fascist national congress was adopted - more **conservative + right wing** - dropped any mention of abolishment of the monarchy + attacking the power of the Pope - more **pro-business** + **compulsory military service** - promised to sell of nationalised business to private investors - goals of complete unification of the **irredente lands**
34
Partito Nazionale Fascista
- **PNF** set up in *October 1921* - formal political party - Mussolini aimed to **centralise control** over the fascist movement - as opposed to wide conglomeration of radical squads - founded **local branches** - attempted to **recruit more respectable members** - to advance appeal
35
Extent of Fascist Support
- by the *end of 1921* membership of the PNF grew to **200k** - appealed to **urban middle class** + professional **white collar workers** + **small business owners**- feared a **socialist revolution** + PSI **increase in local taxes** - middle class + **upper class landowners + wealthy farmers**- saw fascists as a way to protect their lifestyle + **no land reform** - financial support from **rich landowners + industrialists** - supported fascism’s attempt to **break union power** - workers + peasants who opposed the strength of the socialists + violence used against labourers who worked during strikes
36
Fascism Appeal to youth
- youth tired of **corruption + lethargy** of liberal gov - fascism seen as a new + dynamic alternative - strong **patriotism** + **hatred of socialists** + weak liberal gov + belief in Mussolini
37
Nitti resigns
- **Nitti** resigned on *June 9 1920* - replaced by Giolitti - Giolitti was **80** years old + disliked by nationalists due to his **anti-interventionist policy** in WW1 - Giolitti used old method of **absorption** during Biennio Rosso - during *1920* strikes - compromised with workers + pressured banks to withdraw support for companies not willing to negotiate with workers + refused use of violence - strikes ended by *September 25 1920*
38
Backlash to Giolitti’s plan
- Catholics + middle class + industrialists + nationalists + landowners were angry - belief that Giolitti had given in to the workers’ demands - contrast with the fascists’ use of violence to deal with the socialists
39
Partito Communista Italiano
- *January 1921* the more radical members of the PSI split to form the **Partito Communista Italiano** - **PCI** - had support from **Russia** - closely aligned with the Communist Party - Bolsheviks - the **split** in the PSI **weakened** the political strength of the **left-wing movement**
40
Creation of PCI consequences
- PCI **too small** to be a political threat via the **ballot box or revolution** - appearance of a communist party financed by Russia worked as **propaganda for Mussolini** - formation of the PCI was proof that Italy was on the verge of revolution - Mussolini claimed that Biennio Russo failed due to fascist power - they saved Italy
41
July 1922
- **PSI + PCI** encouraged further pressure on the political system - called for a **24 hour general strike** - most workers didn’t support it - fear of fascist backlash - Mussolini claimed it was the actions of the fascists + PNF that speared Italy from revolution
42
Giolitti’s tactics no longer working
- **ideological split** more defined + deep rooted - **Parties** were **strong** on their own - PPI + PNF - **increase in number of parties** - difficult to organise a working coalition - parties didn’t want to work together - **PNF + PCI wanted political turmoil** to continue - until parliament collapsed
43
During 1921 election
- Giolitti tried to **absorb the fascists** - offered the members that were **running for parliament** a place in his **national bloc** on ballot paper - after being voted into parliament as a **gov backed candidate** - Mussolini declared he would **vote for the opposition** - parliament was made of **123 socialists** + **15 communists** + **107 PPI** + **35 PNF** - impossible to form a stable gov - **Giolitti resigns**
44
PM List
- Nitti - *June 9 1920* - Giolitti - *1921* - Ivanoe Bonomi - - Luigi Facta -
45
Dual Policy
- Mussolini hoped to become PM through constitutional channels - had to balance the radical members + conservatives in the **PNF** - *July 1921* Mussolini called for an end to **squadristi violence** - didn’t want middle class to question use of fascist violence as socialist revolution was fading
46
Pact of Pacification
- *August 1921* - signed with the **socialist trade union** + **PSI members in Parliament** - **peace agreement** - Pact of Pacification was an attempt to assert his dominance over fascism
47
Ras response
- until *October 1921* fascism had been a movement not a Party - the squads had more loyalty to their **ras boss** than to Mussolini - squads were funded at a local level - **Dino Grandi** + **Italo Balbo** + **Roberto Farinacci** - three powerful ras bosses - condemned the pact - meetings of squadristi held throughout Italy + called for an end to the Pact
48
Mussolini’s resignation
- **threaten to resign** as leader of the Fascists if the Ras didn’t follow his policy - on *August 18 1921* he resigned - **political manoeuvre** - without Mussolini the fascists **lacked unity + direction** - ras unable to work together to formulate policy - Mussolini’s **absence strengthened his position** - showed his importance - ras bosses approached **d’Annunzio** to lead fascists but he **refused**
49
Dino Grandi
- Mussolini offered him a **prominent role on a fascist journal** - consequently **confirmed his support** for Mussolini - Mussolini understood what could be offered to secure loyalty
50
PNF Conference 1921
- fascist delegates **overwhelmingly voted to support Mussolini** as leader - confirmed the organisation as an official Party - PNF programme confirmed that the **squadristi** were under the control of the party - Mussolini forced to **drop the Pact of Pacification** - he encouraged **upsurge in fascist violence**
51
The squads become formally organised
- end of *1921* the squads are grouped into **cohorts** under the command of **consuls** - organised under zone commanders - *spring 1922 onwards* fascist violence expanded - **Blackshirts** attacked areas where Socialists controlled the local council - town after town fell to the fascists - inadequate response from gov - **Italo Balbo** - ras boss - lead squads through **Rimini to Bertinoro** - Italian east coast - destroyed **houses + offices** where **socialists + communists** held meetings
52
Government response to rising squad violence
- Bonomi’s gov collapsed in *February 1922* - replaced by **Luigi Facta** weak + complacent - gov did nothing to stop squad violence - kept some public services running with volunteers - to save Italy from communism - squads launched new attacks in **Genoa + Milan + Livorno + Ancona + Bari** - murdered socialist leads + supporters - by *October 1922* the fascists become the **de facto** gov in many provinces
53
Mussolini 1922
- PNF grew to around **320k members** + nearly **500k workers** joined **fascist trade unions** - Mussolini still favoured **dual policy** - if fascists accepted through gov coalition - Mussolini would pursue a moderate **conservative policy** + back **monarchy** + reduce **tax** + balance **budget** - encouraged squads to attack **Bolzano + Trent** - held by conservative liberals - pressuring gov itself
54
Liberal gov divided on how to respond
- **Orlando + Nitti** called for a **coalition** with the fascists - both hoped to become PM again - Giolitti concerned with **stopping rival** rather than stopping fascism - Giolitti refused to help **Facta’s gov** unless offered to be **PM** by the king - Mussolini used chaos to promise **Nitti + Salandra + Facta + Giolitti** each that they could be PM in a **fascist coalition gov**
55
Mussolini’s indecisiveness
- **ras** were pushing for a **March on Rome** - Mussolini wanted to be PM constitutionally - would give him a stronger position - unsure of army’s response - squads would be crushed by army if King commanded it
56
24 - 28 October
- *24th* - Mussolini made a **public speech** in **Naples** to squadristi that he would either be appointed PM or seize power - Mussolini continued talks with liberal politicians about potential coalition gov - *27th* - squadristi occupied **gov offices + telephone exchanges** + **Facta** asked **King** to proclaim **martial law** + use army - *28th* - **king initially agreed** with Facta + at *9am* **changed his mind** and refused to sign the decree
57
Victor Emmanuel III
- weak + indecisive + **lacked confidence in Facta** to control the situation - **Salandra + supporters** influence King to not sign - Facta’s resignation would allow Salandra to be PM - may fear that the **army would support fascists **+ didn’t want bloodshed - army chiefs promised king they would follow orders + couldn’t guarantee that soldiers would shoot fascists - king’s cousin **Duke of Aosta** was a fascist supporter - Mussolini hinted the Duke could take over
58
Mussolini becomes PM
- without king’s support - **Facta resigns** - king first turned to Salandra - asked Mussolini to form coalition - Mussolini had enough power to directly ask to be PM instead - without Mussolini’s support - **Salandra declines** king’s offer - **Salandra + Orlando + Giolitti** tell king to appoint Mussolini **instead of each other** - *29 October* - Mussolini receives offer from King to be **PM in a coalition gov**
59
March on Rome
- *30th October* - Mussolini arrives in **Rome** and is sworn in as PM - approx **50k fascists** led by the **quadrumvirs** make their way to Rome - *31st October* - **victory parade** - **myth of the March on Rome** - power taken through **armed insurrection** used in propaganda - **state - sponsored history books** would later write about a **civil war** in which **3k** fascists died
60
Quadrumvirs
- the four main leaders of fascism that Mussolini tasked with organising the March on Rome - **Michele Bianchi** + **Emilio De Bono** + **Cesare Maria de Vecchi** + **Italo Balbo** - often photographed alongside Mussolini at the start - **De Vecchi + Balbo** were made colonial administrators in **Somalia + Libya** - unable to interfere in politics
61
November 1922 situation
- only **35** fascist deputies whereas **123** PSI deputies - cabinet included **4** fascists + 4** liberals + **2** PPI + **1** ANI + **3** key independents ( General Diaz ) - appointed self **Foreign Minister** + **Minister for the Interior** - appointed orthodox economist **Alberto De’Stefani** **minister of finance** - placated the conservative industrialists
62
Gaining the trust of the Catholic Church
- increased clerical pay + reinstated crucifixes in schools + banned contraception - PPI member **Stefano Cavazzoni** appointed **minister of work and welfare** - encouraged PPI to work with Mussolini - by *July 1923* **Luigi Stuurzo** had resigned - Mussolini’s pro-Catholic policies encouraged the Vatican to support the PNF - **Pope Pius XI**
63
ANI
- on *28th October 1922* Mussolini announced a compromised between ANI + PNF - in *February 1923* the ANI were officially absorbed into the fascist party - showed PNF as the only party representing Italian nationalism
64
PM Maiden Speech
- *16 November 1922* - warned that he had **300k** men ready to take violent action against his non-supporters - mixture of threats + promises - asked deputies for emergency powers
65
Request for emergency powers
- granted emergency powers for **a year** - Senate approved by **196 to 16** - deputies gave Mussolini a massive **vote of confidence** **three weeks** after becoming PM - supposedly in order to reform the administration and tax system
66
Grand Council of Fascism
- *December 1922* - rival organisation to the cabinet - appointed key fascists like **Italo Balbo** + **Michele Bianchi** + **Emilio De Bono** - discussed key policy + undermined liberal gov institutions by bypassing them - centralised Mussolini’s powers as he solely chose the members of the council
67
MVSN
- created in *January 1923* - supported by king + army + elite - absorbed all the **squadristi** + formalised the role as a **party-based paramilitary group** who supported the army + police in defending the **fascist revolution** - the **300k** members pledged allegiance to Italy + commander-in-chief Mussolini - brought an end to fascist violence - viewed negatively since socialist revolution threat had disappeared - **200 ras** expelled from party
68
Cheka
- **secret personal bodyguard** of fascist thugs - purpose was to **terrorise any opponents** of Mussolini - led by **Ameriqo Dumini** - one of Mussolini’s closest advisors - since the **March on Rome** party numbers had increased to **783k** - majority **middle class**
69
Acerbo Law
- named after **Giacomo Acerbo** who drafted it - proposed that **2/3** of parliamentary seats should go to the party that won the most votes ( at least 25% of total ) - the remaining **1/3** would be distributed proportionately to the other parties - Mussolini claimed that it would bring stability to Italy and create a strong government
70
Passing of the Acerbo Law
- opposed by PCI + PSI - supported by king + Giolitti + liberal elites - Vatican supported the law which pressured PPI to abstain - fascists demonstrated in **Tuscany + Umbria** - threatened violence
71
New Elections 6 April 1924
- **Orlando** + **Salandra** were on the fascist list - opposition forces divided between the PCI + PPI + PSI - unable to create a united opposition - electoral turnout of **64%** - The Fascists and their allies secured **66% of the vote** - Fascist deputies increased from **35 to 374**, giving them a clear majority (535 seats in total) - Of the remaining deputies 39 PPI + 46 Socialists (split between two rival parties – PSI and Reform Liberals) + 19 were Communists.
72
Blackshirt violence during election
- destroyed hundreds of opposition clubs + offices - murdered PSI candidate **Antonio Piccinini** - Mussolini tried suppressing the violence - opposition still managed to attract **2.5 million votes**
73
Early 1923 support grows
- convinced **industrialists** to support fascism - didn’t attack **tax evasion** - persuaded **Confindustria** - a powerful organisation that repped big business - launched an attack on **freemasonry** + **baptised his grown children** + had a **church wedding** - to appease the Church
74
Matteotti speech
- *30 May 1924* - **PCI** leader **Giacomo Matteotti speech** in parliament - denounced use of violence + corruption during electoral campaign - asserted the fascists only won through violence - rumours that Matteotti had a **large file on fascist party corruption**
75
Matteotti murder
- kidnapped on **10 June 1924** walking to parliament - his body found on **16 August** in a shallow grave outside Rome - the car he had been taken in belonged to **Mussolini’s press secretary Cesare Rossi** - leader of the kidnapping was **Ameriqo Dumini** who was arrested on **12 June** - head of the **Cheka** - only served **11 months** in jail - received approx **2.37 million** in payments from the PNF until 1943
76
Pressure on Mussolini
- **elite** concerned with PM connection to murder - PSI + PCI calling for the **dismissal of Mussolini** - pressure from **ras** who saw Matteotti crisis as opportunity to establish **dictatorship**
77
Aventine Secession
- on *13 June* around **100 antifascist deputies** walked out of parliament - established own parliament on the **Aventine Hill** outside Rome - hoped to prompt king to dismiss Mussolini
78
Mussolini’s response to the Matteotti Crisis
- Mussolini gave position of **Minister of Interior** to nationalist **Luigi Federzoni** + **Alfredo Rocco** the **Justice Minister** - to reassure elites - **Federzoni** was well respected by the elite - in *November 1924* Mussolini ordered PNF to cease violence - pressured by army - sent **financial assistance** to Matteotti’s wife + kids
79
December 31st 1924
- Mussolini met with a **delegation of squad leaders** - they demanded he **act to defend the fascist revolution** or they would **remove him** as the PNF leader - only two days after **Salandra** declared his opposition to Mussolini
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January 1925
- on *3 January 1925* Mussolini made a **parliamentary speech** where he announced the **establishment of the fascist dictatorship** - on *12 January* Mussolini formed a new cabinet - without most liberals - made self PM + minster of Foreign Affairs + War + Navy + Aviation
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Farinacci
- in *February* Farinacci was appointed as the **PNF secretary** - tasked with purging party of those who disagreed with Mussolini’s political direction - helped increased party membership from **600k** to **938k** - diluted the power of squadristi - **recruited** those who saw **membership + loyalty** as a **career advantage** rather than violence + fascism
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October 1925
- Grand Council of Fascism approved a motion that forced all ras to disband any squads + enlist in the militia - Mussolini gained military support by increasing officer + generals pay - appointed conservative monarchist **Pietro Badoglia** as **chief of general staff** - opposed to a fascist
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Palazzo Vidoni Pact
- *2 October 1925* - established the **official fascist unions** as the only **representatives of Italy’s workers** - took power from socialist + Catholic unions - fascists unions were **more subservient to the industrialists**
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PSU
- on *4 August 1925* the socialist deputy **Tito Zaniboni** arrested for allegedly plotting to assassinate Mussolini - Mussolini immediately banned Zaniboni’s Party - **Partito Socialisto Unitari**
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1925 new laws
- press law - all journalism had to be supervised + approved by the state - gov given the power to sack any public employee whose actions were hostile to the PNF - *December 1925* title of **PM of Italy** changed to **Head of Government and Duce of Fascism**
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1926 new laws
- *Jan 1926* - Duce granted ability to rule by decree = removed ability of parliament to remove PM through vote of no confidence - *31 October 1926* **all parties** apart from PNF **banned** - after **Anteo Zamboni** assassination attempt - a **Special Tribunal for the Defence of State** set up to prosecute antifascists - **no right of appeal**
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Aventine Deputies + Opposition
- **Aventine Deputies** were permanently excluded from parliament - communist leader **Antonio Gramsci** arrested - most opposition leaders had fled in exile to France + elsewhere - **Italian citizenship + property confiscated** of opposition leaders under new fascist law - approx **10k** antifascists left Italy
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Podestà
- Mussolini **abolished elected locals govs + replaced mayors** with a new position called **Podestà** - **appointed by local prefects** - prefects appointed by Mussolini - more powerful than ras
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Augusto Turati
- new PNF secretary **Augusto Turati** replaced Farinacci in *March 1926* - asserted that prefects took precedent over ras - Turati believed that fascists needed to understand that Mussolini was dictator of party and Italy - Mussolini took **18 months** since Matteotti’s murder to establish proper dictatorship - **Il Duce** - the leader
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Attempted assassinations of Mussolini
- *4 August 1925* - **Tito Zaniboni** failed attempt to **shoot** Mussolini from a hotel room overlooking the balcony where Mussolini would give a speech - *7 April 1926* - mentally unstable Anglo-Irish aristocrat **Violet Gibson** claimed she had been ordered to shoot the Pope or Mussolini - shot Mussolini at a speech in Rome - **bullet grazed his nose** - *11 September 1926* - **Gino Lucetti** 26yrs old threw a **grenade** at Mussolini’s car and injured 8 pedestrians - *31 October 1926* - Mussolini’s motorcade was shot at - alleged assassin was 16yrs old **Anteo Zamboni** - attacked by the crowd + murdered - used feeling of fear created by assassinations to justify laws introduced