The Rise Of Mussolini And The Creation Of A Fascist Dictatorship 1919-26 Flashcards
(90 cards)
1
Q
Tensions due to end of WWI
A
- ex-soldiers felt betrayed
- campaign against Austria had been funded through foreign loans + printing more money
- debt + inflation
- rising tension in the south as returning conscripts wanted promised land reforms - forcefully occupied farmland
- in the north there was tension between exempted men vs returning soldiers
- lack of unity
2
Q
Paris Peace Conference at Versailles
A
- January 1919
- PM Vittorio Orlando argued that’s all land promised in the 1915 Treaty of London should be given + Fiume
- it had a small Italian population and so should be given on the principle of nationality
- US president Woodrow Wilson + British PM David Lloyd + French PM Georges Clemenceau - rejected claim on Fiume + Dodecanese Islands + part of the Balkans
- Italy’s war contributions didn’t justify its territorial claims
- Orlando + Sonnino argued he needed the land to justify the war effort to the Italians
- Orlando walked out of the conference in April 1919
3
Q
Paris Peace Conference 1919 May onwards
A
- Britain + France took Germany’s African colonies in Italy’s absence
- Orlando tried to return in May 1919 - his proposals were ignored
- June 1919 Vittorio Orlando resigned as PM
- Italy acquired Trente + Trieste + Istria + northern Dalmatia as part of the Treaty of London 1915
- failure to gain Fiume or African colonies undermined the liberal gov
4
Q
Mutilated Victory Myth
A
- used by Italian nationalists and Italian irredendists to describe their dissatisfaction concerning territorial rewards in return for war efforts
- national shame
- disgraced the 600k soldiers who lost their lives in the war
- made the liberal gov seem weak
5
Q
Francesco Nitti
A
- replaced Orlando as PM
- Italy’s weak economy + need for coal + money of the Allies meant that Nitti played down Italy’s claims
- wanted to maintain strong relation with the Allies
- allowed Yugoslavia to take Dalmatia
- allowed Fiume to be a neutral city under the protection of the League of Nations
- reduced military spending + issued amnesty to Italian soldiers that had deserted
- condemned as the Cagoia - coward
- fascists would focus on the mutilated victory idea
6
Q
Occupation of Fiume
A
- nationalist right-wing group challenged the gov in Rome - young men + demobilised soldiers
- most prominent leader was Gabriele d’Annunzio - had led protests in 1914 calling for Italy’s entry to WW1
- 12 September 1919 Gabriele + 2k men made of ex-soldiers + Futurists + students seized the port of Fiume without fight
- the Italian gov failed to act for 15 months - d’Annunzio + small army removed on Christmas 1920
- Gabriele had shown the frailties of the gov + power of assertive nationalism
7
Q
What did Mussolini learn from Gabriele d’Annunzio
A
- assertive nationalism
- use of squadrons
- balcony speeches
- use of reporters for PR
- posters as propaganda
- processions
- parties
8
Q
Futurists
A
- cultural + artistic movement - formed in 1909 by Filippo Tommaso Marinetti
- celebrated violence + patriotism + destruction
- believed war would bring about a new more militaristic society
- despised liberal system + idea of mutilated victory
- some of the founding members of the Fascists - disappointed that Mussolini wasn’t more radical
9
Q
Gabriele d’Annunzio
A
- was the most famous poet in Italy during WW1
- led protests calling for Italy’s entry into WW1
- believed war would be a unifying force that would lead to a more militaristic society
- dropped 400k leaflets propaganda over Vienna in a plane
- fascist slogan Me ne frego - I don’t give a damn
- emotional speeches
10
Q
Post war economic crisis
A
- millions of demobilised soldiers flooded the job market
- by November 1919 unemployment reached 2 million
- many companies like Fiat + Ansaldo + Ilva struggled to stay afloat post-war
- Ansaldo + Ilva - major munitions companies - collapsed in 1921 causing a banking crisis
- Banca Di Sconta - major bank - had been tied to Ansaldo - forced to close
- economic recession in late 1920
11
Q
Post-War Social Discontent
A
- after WW1 ended, the previously jailed anarchist + socialist radicals were released
- major strikes + factory occupations + violent riots
- membership of the socialist unions had grown from 250k in 1918 to 2 million by 1920
- in 1919 rising food prices had caused riots in northern + central Italy - protestors looted granaries +shops
12
Q
Specific strikes 1920
A
- January railway strikes
- April + September telegraph worker strikes
- July army troops’ strike
- September (largest strike) - factory worker strike with over 400k workers taking over factories + flying red communist flag + black anarchist flags for nearly 4 weeks - gov eventually ended the strike
13
Q
Biennio Rosso
A
- translates to Two Red Years
- period between 1919-20
- when left-wing socialist + communist organisations were at their peak
- created fear + chaos that encouraged people to support the fascists for stability
- fascists were violently confronting the left-wing movement
- liberal gov trying to find a compromise with the workers
14
Q
Post-War Countryside
A
- the gov had made big land reform promises during WW1
- only some land made available for peasants to buy - didn’t satisfy the number of farmer demanding land for farming
- many peasants seized land from the owners - simply marched into barren + uncultivated land and planted a flag and set to work
- land occupations alarmed wealthy landowners
15
Q
Rural socialist unions
A
- rural socialist unions were particularly strong in areas like Ferrara + Bologna - controlled employment of rural labourers
- excluded farm labourers that weren’t socialist union members
- carried out violent attacks on workers + farmers who refused to join union
- landowners felt threatened by rising rural socialist militancy + weak gov response
16
Q
Changed before 1919 election
A
- Italian parliamentary elections in 1919 took place against a backdrop of political upheaval
- introduction of new law allowing Italians who served at front + men over 21 to vote
- meant that the amount of people allowed to vote increased by 11 million
- Changed voting method to Proportional Representation
17
Q
Proportional Representation
A
- an electoral system
- voters cast their votes for political parties
- the percentage of the vote that each party receives translates into the percentage of seats that the party receives in the legislature
- makes it difficult for a single party to win a majority
- allows public to have a greater influence on which parties are elected to parliament
18
Q
Partito Popolare Italiano
A
- PPI set up in 1919 - led by priest Luigi Sturzo
- not officially affiliated with the Vatican + didn’t mention the Roman Question in the manifesto
- policy pushed for Catholic interests + supported land reform
- campaigned for more farming areas to be made available to the peasants
- strength of Catholic feeling + popular agitation for land reform made PPI strong
- hostility towards the liberal gov
19
Q
PSI post-war
A
- had become more radical
- refused to work with the liberals post-war
- supported strikes + factory occupations
20
Q
Result and Impact of the 1919 elections
A
- PSI won greatest share of the vote with 32% - led to 156 deputies - 3x amount in 1913
- PPI won 101 seats
- neither party had a majority + weren’t willing to work together in coalition
- old liberal gov remained in power with several coalitions until 1922
- nothing appeared to have actually changed
- Nitti’s gov fell in 1920 and the country turned to Giolitti again
21
Q
Fasci di Combattimento
A
- on March 23 1919 Mussolini put together the representative of approx 20 ex-servicemen’s leagues to form this organisation
- national organisation of ex-soldiers
- his experiences in the trenches made him more nationalistic
22
Q
Trincerocrazia
A
- extreme nature of war + camaraderie felt by those fighting together in war
- a melting away of class divisions in order to focus on Italy
- a sense of war consciousness
- the trinceristi - returning soldiers - had the strength + morals to lead a new Italy
23
Q
Fasci di Combattimento Party Programme
A
- anticlerical + wanted confiscation of church property + abolishment of monarchy + 8 hour working day
- wanted a republic + suffrage extend to women + younger Italians + senate abolishment
- nationalisation of armaments industry + progressive taxation
- confiscation of profits made by large companies in the war
24
Q
Make up of Fasci di Combattimento
A
- weren’t distinguished from other left-wing parties
- only approx 50 people attended the original meeting
- membership reached 3k by June 1919
- predominately made up of arditi - crack troop commandos formed in WW1 - had worn black shirts
- black shirts + skull flag became became the identity of the party
- members commonly known as Blackshirts
25
Squadrismo
- fascists formed themselves into small military units + squads
- the members were referred to as **squadristi** - they answered the socialist threat with **extreme violence**
26
1919 election fascist outcome
- they won **less than 5k votes** + **ZERO seats**
- socialists had paraded a coffin symbolism Mussolini’s political career through Milan
27
Squadrismo attack in Milan
- *April 15 1919* a fascist squad of **250** attacked a socialist demonstration in **Milan** + burned down offices of **Avanti!** - **3 socialists + 1 fascist killed**
- the Milan attack hadn’t been organised by Mussolini but helped him realise the **power of violence**
- none of the squadristi were arrested
- the gov made **no attempt to close down the groups** + didn’t condemn it
- the gov tolerated the squadrismo as they feared the socialist revolution more
28
Mussolini’s armed squads
- organised like military units under a **ras** - commanding officer
- members wore the uniform of a black shirt + carried a revolver + **manganello** - club
- attacked socialist councils + supporters
- weapons were supplied by **local police + army barracks**
- key PSI members targeted - **beaten** + forced to **drink castor oil** + cases of **murder**
- in the *first 5 months of 1921* **200 killed** + **1k** wounded by the fascist violence
- broke the power of socialism + created myth that the fascists had saved Italy from a socialist revolution
29
Popularity of the squadrismo
- wealthy landowners happy to see **socialist land leagues destroyed**
- brought an end to the attempt for land reform
- the soldiers had saved Italy from the Austrian in WW1 + now saved Italy from the traitors + radicals
- popular with those who feared a **socialist revolution**
- popular with the elite ruling class - **military**
30
Political Legitimacy
- respectable liberal politicians shared the belief that the squads were restoring **law + order** + rescuing the country from radicalism
- **police stood by** and allowed the fascists to attack socialists + sometimes joined in
- success of violence against socialism + shift to the right showed in the *May 1921* elections
31
Squad use during the elections
- fascists squads attacked **socialist campaign meetings + intimidated voters**
- **police lent vehicles** + **army gave weapons** to the fascists to help
- **Italian judiciary showed leniency** towards fascists accused of violence against socialists
32
Result of 1921 election
- PSI achieved highest number of votes
- fascists achieved **7%** of the vote + **35 parliamentary seats**
- gave Mussolini new respectability + authority as a member of Parliament
- legitimised fascism as a **political force**
- as a **deputy** Mussolini benefited from **immunity to prosecution**
- a **police charge** against Mussolini for **intent to overthrow the gov by violence** was quietly dropped
33
The New Programme
- *May 1920* the second fascist national congress was adopted
- more **conservative + right wing**
- dropped any mention of abolishment of the monarchy + attacking the power of the Pope
- more **pro-business** + **compulsory military service**
- promised to sell of nationalised business to private investors
- goals of complete unification of the **irredente lands**
34
Partito Nazionale Fascista
- **PNF** set up in *October 1921* - formal political party
- Mussolini aimed to **centralise control** over the fascist movement
- as opposed to wide conglomeration of radical squads
- founded **local branches**
- attempted to **recruit more respectable members** - to advance appeal
35
Extent of Fascist Support
- by the *end of 1921* membership of the PNF grew to **200k**
- appealed to **urban middle class** + professional **white collar workers** + **small business owners**- feared a **socialist revolution** + PSI **increase in local taxes**
- middle class + **upper class landowners + wealthy farmers**- saw fascists as a way to protect their lifestyle + **no land reform**
- financial support from **rich landowners + industrialists** - supported fascism’s attempt to **break union power**
- workers + peasants who opposed the strength of the socialists + violence used against labourers who worked during strikes
36
Fascism Appeal to youth
- youth tired of **corruption + lethargy** of liberal gov
- fascism seen as a new + dynamic alternative
- strong **patriotism** + **hatred of socialists** + weak liberal gov + belief in Mussolini
37
Nitti resigns
- **Nitti** resigned on *June 9 1920* - replaced by Giolitti
- Giolitti was **80** years old + disliked by nationalists due to his **anti-interventionist policy** in WW1
- Giolitti used old method of **absorption** during Biennio Rosso
- during *1920* strikes - compromised with workers + pressured banks to withdraw support for companies not willing to negotiate with workers + refused use of violence
- strikes ended by *September 25 1920*
38
Backlash to Giolitti’s plan
- Catholics + middle class + industrialists + nationalists + landowners were angry
- belief that Giolitti had given in to the workers’ demands
- contrast with the fascists’ use of violence to deal with the socialists
39
Partito Communista Italiano
- *January 1921* the more radical members of the PSI split to form the **Partito Communista Italiano** - **PCI**
- had support from **Russia**
- closely aligned with the Communist Party - Bolsheviks
- the **split** in the PSI **weakened** the political strength of the **left-wing movement**
40
Creation of PCI consequences
- PCI **too small** to be a political threat via the **ballot box or revolution**
- appearance of a communist party financed by Russia worked as **propaganda for Mussolini**
- formation of the PCI was proof that Italy was on the verge of revolution
- Mussolini claimed that Biennio Russo failed due to fascist power - they saved Italy
41
July 1922
- **PSI + PCI** encouraged further pressure on the political system
- called for a **24 hour general strike**
- most workers didn’t support it - fear of fascist backlash
- Mussolini claimed it was the actions of the fascists + PNF that speared Italy from revolution
42
Giolitti’s tactics no longer working
- **ideological split** more defined + deep rooted
- **Parties** were **strong** on their own - PPI + PNF
- **increase in number of parties** - difficult to organise a working coalition
- parties didn’t want to work together
- **PNF + PCI wanted political turmoil** to continue - until parliament collapsed
43
During 1921 election
- Giolitti tried to **absorb the fascists** - offered the members that were **running for parliament** a place in his **national bloc** on ballot paper
- after being voted into parliament as a **gov backed candidate** - Mussolini declared he would **vote for the opposition**
- parliament was made of **123 socialists** + **15 communists** + **107 PPI** + **35 PNF**
- impossible to form a stable gov - **Giolitti resigns**
44
PM List
- Nitti - *June 9 1920*
- Giolitti - *1921*
- Ivanoe Bonomi -
- Luigi Facta -
45
Dual Policy
- Mussolini hoped to become PM through constitutional channels
- had to balance the radical members + conservatives in the **PNF**
- *July 1921* Mussolini called for an end to **squadristi violence** - didn’t want middle class to question use of fascist violence as socialist revolution was fading
46
Pact of Pacification
- *August 1921* - signed with the **socialist trade union** + **PSI members in Parliament**
- **peace agreement**
- Pact of Pacification was an attempt to assert his dominance over fascism
47
Ras response
- until *October 1921* fascism had been a movement not a Party
- the squads had more loyalty to their **ras boss** than to Mussolini
- squads were funded at a local level
- **Dino Grandi** + **Italo Balbo** + **Roberto Farinacci** - three powerful ras bosses - condemned the pact
- meetings of squadristi held throughout Italy + called for an end to the Pact
48
Mussolini’s resignation
- **threaten to resign** as leader of the Fascists if the Ras didn’t follow his policy
- on *August 18 1921* he resigned - **political manoeuvre**
- without Mussolini the fascists **lacked unity + direction**
- ras unable to work together to formulate policy
- Mussolini’s **absence strengthened his position** - showed his importance
- ras bosses approached **d’Annunzio** to lead fascists but he **refused**
49
Dino Grandi
- Mussolini offered him a **prominent role on a fascist journal**
- consequently **confirmed his support** for Mussolini
- Mussolini understood what could be offered to secure loyalty
50
PNF Conference 1921
- fascist delegates **overwhelmingly voted to support Mussolini** as leader
- confirmed the organisation as an official Party
- PNF programme confirmed that the **squadristi** were under the control of the party
- Mussolini forced to **drop the Pact of Pacification** - he encouraged **upsurge in fascist violence**
51
The squads become formally organised
- end of *1921* the squads are grouped into **cohorts** under the command of **consuls** - organised under zone commanders
- *spring 1922 onwards* fascist violence expanded - **Blackshirts** attacked areas where Socialists controlled the local council
- town after town fell to the fascists - inadequate response from gov
- **Italo Balbo** - ras boss - lead squads through **Rimini to Bertinoro** - Italian east coast - destroyed **houses + offices** where **socialists + communists** held meetings
52
Government response to rising squad violence
- Bonomi’s gov collapsed in *February 1922* - replaced by **Luigi Facta** weak + complacent
- gov did nothing to stop squad violence
- kept some public services running with volunteers - to save Italy from communism
- squads launched new attacks in **Genoa + Milan + Livorno + Ancona + Bari** - murdered socialist leads + supporters
- by *October 1922* the fascists become the **de facto** gov in many provinces
53
Mussolini 1922
- PNF grew to around **320k members** + nearly **500k workers** joined **fascist trade unions**
- Mussolini still favoured **dual policy**
- if fascists accepted through gov coalition - Mussolini would pursue a moderate **conservative policy** + back **monarchy** + reduce **tax** + balance **budget**
- encouraged squads to attack **Bolzano + Trent** - held by conservative liberals - pressuring gov itself
54
Liberal gov divided on how to respond
- **Orlando + Nitti** called for a **coalition** with the fascists - both hoped to become PM again
- Giolitti concerned with **stopping rival** rather than stopping fascism
- Giolitti refused to help **Facta’s gov** unless offered to be **PM** by the king
- Mussolini used chaos to promise **Nitti + Salandra + Facta + Giolitti** each that they could be PM in a **fascist coalition gov**
55
Mussolini’s indecisiveness
- **ras** were pushing for a **March on Rome**
- Mussolini wanted to be PM constitutionally - would give him a stronger position
- unsure of army’s response - squads would be crushed by army if King commanded it
56
24 - 28 October
- *24th* - Mussolini made a **public speech** in **Naples** to squadristi that he would either be appointed PM or seize power
- Mussolini continued talks with liberal politicians about potential coalition gov
- *27th* - squadristi occupied **gov offices + telephone exchanges** + **Facta** asked **King** to proclaim **martial law** + use army
- *28th* - **king initially agreed** with Facta + at *9am* **changed his mind** and refused to sign the decree
57
Victor Emmanuel III
- weak + indecisive + **lacked confidence in Facta** to control the situation
- **Salandra + supporters** influence King to not sign - Facta’s resignation would allow Salandra to be PM
- may fear that the **army would support fascists **+ didn’t want bloodshed
- army chiefs promised king they would follow orders + couldn’t guarantee that soldiers would shoot fascists
- king’s cousin **Duke of Aosta** was a fascist supporter - Mussolini hinted the Duke could take over
58
Mussolini becomes PM
- without king’s support - **Facta resigns**
- king first turned to Salandra - asked Mussolini to form coalition - Mussolini had enough power to directly ask to be PM instead
- without Mussolini’s support - **Salandra declines** king’s offer
- **Salandra + Orlando + Giolitti** tell king to appoint Mussolini **instead of each other**
- *29 October* - Mussolini receives offer from King to be **PM in a coalition gov**
59
March on Rome
- *30th October* - Mussolini arrives in **Rome** and is sworn in as PM
- approx **50k fascists** led by the **quadrumvirs** make their way to Rome
- *31st October* - **victory parade**
- **myth of the March on Rome** - power taken through **armed insurrection** used in propaganda
- **state - sponsored history books** would later write about a **civil war** in which **3k** fascists died
60
Quadrumvirs
- the four main leaders of fascism that Mussolini tasked with organising the March on Rome
- **Michele Bianchi** + **Emilio De Bono** + **Cesare Maria de Vecchi** + **Italo Balbo**
- often photographed alongside Mussolini at the start
- **De Vecchi + Balbo** were made colonial administrators in **Somalia + Libya** - unable to interfere in politics
61
November 1922 situation
- only **35** fascist deputies whereas **123** PSI deputies
- cabinet included **4** fascists + 4** liberals + **2** PPI + **1** ANI + **3** key independents ( General Diaz )
- appointed self **Foreign Minister** + **Minister for the Interior**
- appointed orthodox economist **Alberto De’Stefani** **minister of finance** - placated the conservative industrialists
62
Gaining the trust of the Catholic Church
- increased clerical pay + reinstated crucifixes in schools + banned contraception
- PPI member **Stefano Cavazzoni** appointed **minister of work and welfare** - encouraged PPI to work with Mussolini
- by *July 1923* **Luigi Stuurzo** had resigned
- Mussolini’s pro-Catholic policies encouraged the Vatican to support the PNF - **Pope Pius XI**
63
ANI
- on *28th October 1922* Mussolini announced a compromised between ANI + PNF
- in *February 1923* the ANI were officially absorbed into the fascist party
- showed PNF as the only party representing Italian nationalism
64
PM Maiden Speech
- *16 November 1922*
- warned that he had **300k** men ready to take violent action against his non-supporters
- mixture of threats + promises
- asked deputies for emergency powers
65
Request for emergency powers
- granted emergency powers for **a year**
- Senate approved by **196 to 16**
- deputies gave Mussolini a massive **vote of confidence** **three weeks** after becoming PM
- supposedly in order to reform the administration and tax system
66
Grand Council of Fascism
- *December 1922* - rival organisation to the cabinet
- appointed key fascists like **Italo Balbo** + **Michele Bianchi** + **Emilio De Bono**
- discussed key policy + undermined liberal gov institutions by bypassing them
- centralised Mussolini’s powers as he solely chose the members of the council
67
MVSN
- created in *January 1923* - supported by king + army + elite
- absorbed all the **squadristi** + formalised the role as a **party-based paramilitary group** who supported the army + police in defending the **fascist revolution**
- the **300k** members pledged allegiance to Italy + commander-in-chief Mussolini
- brought an end to fascist violence - viewed negatively since socialist revolution threat had disappeared
- **200 ras** expelled from party
68
Cheka
- **secret personal bodyguard** of fascist thugs
- purpose was to **terrorise any opponents** of Mussolini
- led by **Ameriqo Dumini** - one of Mussolini’s closest advisors
- since the **March on Rome** party numbers had increased to **783k** - majority **middle class**
69
Acerbo Law
- named after **Giacomo Acerbo** who drafted it
- proposed that **2/3** of parliamentary seats should go to the party that won the most votes ( at least 25% of total )
- the remaining **1/3** would be distributed proportionately to the other parties
- Mussolini claimed that it would bring stability to Italy and create a strong government
70
Passing of the Acerbo Law
- opposed by PCI + PSI
- supported by king + Giolitti + liberal elites
- Vatican supported the law which pressured PPI to abstain
- fascists demonstrated in **Tuscany + Umbria** - threatened violence
71
New Elections 6 April 1924
- **Orlando** + **Salandra** were on the fascist list
- opposition forces divided between the PCI + PPI + PSI - unable to create a united opposition
- electoral turnout of **64%**
- The Fascists and their allies secured **66% of the vote**
- Fascist deputies increased from **35 to 374**, giving them a clear majority (535 seats in total)
- Of the remaining deputies 39 PPI + 46 Socialists (split between two rival parties – PSI and Reform Liberals) + 19 were Communists.
72
Blackshirt violence during election
- destroyed hundreds of opposition clubs + offices
- murdered PSI candidate **Antonio Piccinini**
- Mussolini tried suppressing the violence
- opposition still managed to attract **2.5 million votes**
73
Early 1923 support grows
- convinced **industrialists** to support fascism - didn’t attack **tax evasion**
- persuaded **Confindustria** - a powerful organisation that repped big business
- launched an attack on **freemasonry** + **baptised his grown children** + had a **church wedding** - to appease the Church
74
Matteotti speech
- *30 May 1924* - **PCI** leader **Giacomo Matteotti speech** in parliament
- denounced use of violence + corruption during electoral campaign
- asserted the fascists only won through violence
- rumours that Matteotti had a **large file on fascist party corruption**
75
Matteotti murder
- kidnapped on **10 June 1924** walking to parliament
- his body found on **16 August** in a shallow grave outside Rome
- the car he had been taken in belonged to **Mussolini’s press secretary Cesare Rossi**
- leader of the kidnapping was **Ameriqo Dumini** who was arrested on **12 June** - head of the **Cheka** - only served **11 months** in jail - received approx **2.37 million** in payments from the PNF until 1943
76
Pressure on Mussolini
- **elite** concerned with PM connection to murder
- PSI + PCI calling for the **dismissal of Mussolini**
- pressure from **ras** who saw Matteotti crisis as opportunity to establish **dictatorship**
77
Aventine Secession
- on *13 June* around **100 antifascist deputies** walked out of parliament
- established own parliament on the **Aventine Hill** outside Rome
- hoped to prompt king to dismiss Mussolini
78
Mussolini’s response to the Matteotti Crisis
- Mussolini gave position of **Minister of Interior** to nationalist **Luigi Federzoni** + **Alfredo Rocco** the **Justice Minister** - to reassure elites
- **Federzoni** was well respected by the elite
- in *November 1924* Mussolini ordered PNF to cease violence - pressured by army
- sent **financial assistance** to Matteotti’s wife + kids
79
December 31st 1924
- Mussolini met with a **delegation of squad leaders**
- they demanded he **act to defend the fascist revolution** or they would **remove him** as the PNF leader
- only two days after **Salandra** declared his opposition to Mussolini
80
January 1925
- on *3 January 1925* Mussolini made a **parliamentary speech** where he announced the **establishment of the fascist dictatorship**
- on *12 January* Mussolini formed a new cabinet - without most liberals
- made self PM + minster of Foreign Affairs + War + Navy + Aviation
81
Farinacci
- in *February* Farinacci was appointed as the **PNF secretary**
- tasked with purging party of those who disagreed with Mussolini’s political direction
- helped increased party membership from **600k** to **938k**
- diluted the power of squadristi
- **recruited** those who saw **membership + loyalty** as a **career advantage** rather than violence + fascism
82
October 1925
- Grand Council of Fascism approved a motion that forced all ras to disband any squads + enlist in the militia
- Mussolini gained military support by increasing officer + generals pay
- appointed conservative monarchist **Pietro Badoglia** as **chief of general staff** - opposed to a fascist
83
Palazzo Vidoni Pact
- *2 October 1925*
- established the **official fascist unions** as the only **representatives of Italy’s workers**
- took power from socialist + Catholic unions
- fascists unions were **more subservient to the industrialists**
84
PSU
- on *4 August 1925* the socialist deputy **Tito Zaniboni** arrested for allegedly plotting to assassinate Mussolini
- Mussolini immediately banned Zaniboni’s Party
- **Partito Socialisto Unitari**
85
1925 new laws
- press law - all journalism had to be supervised + approved by the state
- gov given the power to sack any public employee whose actions were hostile to the PNF
- *December 1925* title of **PM of Italy** changed to **Head of Government and Duce of Fascism**
86
1926 new laws
- *Jan 1926* - Duce granted ability to rule by decree = removed ability of parliament to remove PM through vote of no confidence
- *31 October 1926* **all parties** apart from PNF **banned** - after **Anteo Zamboni** assassination attempt
- a **Special Tribunal for the Defence of State** set up to prosecute antifascists - **no right of appeal**
87
Aventine Deputies + Opposition
- **Aventine Deputies** were permanently excluded from parliament
- communist leader **Antonio Gramsci** arrested
- most opposition leaders had fled in exile to France + elsewhere
- **Italian citizenship + property confiscated** of opposition leaders under new fascist law
- approx **10k** antifascists left Italy
88
Podestà
- Mussolini **abolished elected locals govs + replaced mayors** with a new position called **Podestà** - **appointed by local prefects**
- prefects appointed by Mussolini - more powerful than ras
89
Augusto Turati
- new PNF secretary **Augusto Turati** replaced Farinacci in *March 1926*
- asserted that prefects took precedent over ras
- Turati believed that fascists needed to understand that Mussolini was dictator of party and Italy
- Mussolini took **18 months** since Matteotti’s murder to establish proper dictatorship - **Il Duce** - the leader
90
Attempted assassinations of Mussolini
- *4 August 1925* - **Tito Zaniboni** failed attempt to **shoot** Mussolini from a hotel room overlooking the balcony where Mussolini would give a speech
- *7 April 1926* - mentally unstable Anglo-Irish aristocrat **Violet Gibson** claimed she had been ordered to shoot the Pope or Mussolini - shot Mussolini at a speech in Rome - **bullet grazed his nose**
- *11 September 1926* - **Gino Lucetti** 26yrs old threw a **grenade** at Mussolini’s car and injured 8 pedestrians
- *31 October 1926* - Mussolini’s motorcade was shot at - alleged assassin was 16yrs old **Anteo Zamboni** - attacked by the crowd + murdered
- used feeling of fear created by assassinations to justify laws introduced
