The Fascist State 1925-40 Flashcards
(96 cards)
1
Q
Youth groups for boys
A
- by December 1921 the Fascist Front Guard was created for boys 14 to 17 years old
- March 1923 the Gruppi Universitari Fascisti - GUF was formed
- creation of Balilla for ages 8-14 years old
- in the early 1920s these youth groups weren’t well organised and competed with youth groups of other political partes
- by 1924 only 3k children were formally involved with fascist youth organisations
2
Q
Opera Nazionale Balilla ONB
A
- created by formal decree on 3 April 1926
- goal of providing for the physical and moral benefit of youth - through the education of boys 8 to 18 years
3
Q
1934 Balilla restructuring
A
- Figla Della Lupa- Sons of the She Wolf - for ages 6 to 8 years
- Balilla - for ages 8 to 14 years
- Avanguardisti - for ages 14 to 17 years
4
Q
Youth groups for girls
A
- Figlie Della Lupa - Daughters of the She Wolf - for ages 6 to 8 years
- Piccole Italiane - Little Italians for ages 8 to 13 years
- Giovane Italiane - Young Italian Women - for ages 14 to 17 years
- these organisations were under the control of the Ministry of National Education
5
Q
Ministry of National Education
A
- created in 1929
- to oversee both the scholarly education and physical training of Italy’s youth
- aim to create a new loyal and physically strong generation of fascists
6
Q
Compulsory youth group membership
A
- ONB was linked into the formal education system and was compulsory for boys and girls aged 6 to 11 years
- in 1939 ONB membership made compulsory after the age of 11 too
- non-membership made it difficult to enrol in further education + barred civil service employment + caused suspicion of being non-fascists
- membership of the ONB provided access to jobs + special scholarships
7
Q
Balilla legend
A
- allegedly the nickname of Giovane Battista Perasso - a boy from Genoa
- started a revolt against Austrian rule in 1746 when he threw a stone at an Austrian official
- the name Balilla was associated with revolution + independence
- the name chosen to represent the idea of a militarised youth who were ready to stand against foreign invaders
8
Q
Youth programme aims
A
- all other youth organisations apart from Church associated ones were banned
- from 8 to 14 - boys trained in the moral + spiritual defence of the country
- 14+ boys involved in sporting programmes to prepare for military life
- at 18 years old all able-bodied males underwent military training
- Giovinezza - name of the fascist hymn
9
Q
Balilla training
A
- sport + military training for boys involved activities like marching + wrestling + shooting + bomb throwing
- young boys taught that the perfect Balilla was one who swore loyalty to Mussolini + dreamt of fighting + dying for his country
10
Q
Physical education for girls
A
- girls did gymnastics - to ensure they would become fit mothers + bear healthy children
- would educate their children in the love for Italy + Mussolini
11
Q
At school
A
- made links between Italy’s great heroes like Caesar and Mussolini
- textbooks explained the poor treatment of Italian soldiers post-WWI + fascism saved Italy from a communist revolution
- in 1933 made compulsory for teachers to be a PNF member
- Libro Unico - single authorised government textbook covering all subjects
- 101 out of 317 history textbooks banned in 1926
12
Q
GUF goals
A
- at university level there was less focus on formal fascist training + military training
- GUF’s main goal was to run the Littoriali - national student games about cultural + debacle competitions centred on fascist themes
- Littoriali ran from 1934 to 1940
- by 1937 before membership was compulsory - fascist youth groups had 7 million members
13
Q
Motivation for youth
A
- not usually the belief in fascism
- more interest in the enjoyable social occasions - enjoyed being outdoors than in classroom
- success of youth policy hampered by regional and demographic differences
14
Q
Divide between north and south
A
- in the rural south most didn’t study past the compulsory age of 11
- nature of agricultural work made participation in youth groups more difficult
- difference between fun sport activities for boys vs dull focus on becoming good mothers for girls
- 1937 PNF survey in Rome found that girls were more interested in the sporting activities for boys
15
Q
WWII soldiers
A
- the most dedicated fascist soldiers were mainly young Italians who were products of fascist youth policy
- HOWEVER the antifascist forces were predominately made up of young people who had also been brought up in the same fascist education system
16
Q
Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro OND
A
- National Afterwork Organisation - one of the most popular aspects of the fascist regime
- in 1925 the fascist OND replaced the banned socialist organisations for worker recreation + welfare
- provided workers with social + sporting activities - bars + billiard halls + cycling groups + football teams + libraries + radios
- each OND section typically had a clubhouse + recreation ground for activities
- plays + concerts provided for workers + popular films
17
Q
OND membership benefits
A
- rail ticket discounts + other consumer benefits
- acted as a welfare organisation provided relief for workers in need + provided a level of social insurance
- subsidised holidays + excursions - workers could their family for virtually no cost to mountain retreats + sporting events + beach
- first example of popular mass leisure in Italy
18
Q
OND membership
A
- by 1939 OND had over 4 million members
- approx 80% of all state + private sector salaried workers were OND members
- approx 40% of Italy’s industrial workers
- OND was ideologically free - no direct promotion of fascist beliefs + ideology
19
Q
OND popularity = Mussolini popularity
A
- people benefited from OND without any actual commitment to fascist ideals
- some PNF members complained that OND didn’t provide fascist education
- Mussolini considered main achievement of OND to be that workers met + participated in social activities linked to the fascist party
20
Q
Press control decrees + prefect power
A
- 1923 + 1925 press control decrees formalised into official laws sanctioned by government by 1926
- 1926 provincial prefects given the power to place anyone under police supervision if deemed a political threat
- prefects had the ability to confiscate whole editions of newspapers + journals + magazines if judged as unfavourable to the fascist regime
- prefects could suspend publications + replace editors + shout down offending newspapers completely
21
Q
Newspapers + journalists
A
- left-wing newspapers like Avanti! + Partito Popolare + L’Unita were closed down
- all journalists incorporated into a fascist union - controlled job access + promotion
- enforced a type of self-censorship - journalists in the union ensured work was fascist-positive or lost their job
- Mussolini’s Press Officer sent out specific instructions on what should and shouldn’t be published
- fascist reports about the greatness of Mussolini and published
- journalists couldn’t write about crime + suicides + traffic incidents - would ruin the fascist image of Italy as a country with no social problems
22
Q
Controlling Press
A
- Mussolini’s fascist newspaper Popolo d’Italia only had a circulation of 100k compared to the Vatican newspaper Osservatore Romano with 250k in circulation
- fascist newspapers only made up 10% of all newspaper sales in Italy
- Press Law of December 1925
23
Q
Controlling newspapers
A
- increased subsidiaries for newspapers printing positive stories about Mussolini
- independent newspapers allowed to exist under strict guidance - often by the newspaper’s own editor who was fearful of consequences
- fascist regime was successful in controlling press - public only saw the narrative given by the fascist regime
24
Q
Propaganda
A
- Mussolini’s goal was to use propaganda to increase support for policies + transform Italians into fascists
- focus on unifying ideals to draw Italians together
- create shared patriotic feeling about Italian history + fascist rebirth of Italy
25
Cult of Ancient Rome
- celebrated the greatness of Ancient Rome + leaders
- **portrayed Italians as the heirs to the greatest empire** in history
- **Medieval buildings destroyed** so that **Rome’s classic ruins could be better displayed**
- in *1937* a large celebration to commemorate the **2,000th** anniversary of **Augustus Caesar** was held in **Rome**
- over a **million** people visited the **exhibition of Roman history**
26
Mussolini and Rome
- Mussolini linked to the image of Rome as the **heir of Augustus**
- Mussolini was rebuilding Italy as a great power from the ruins of chaos + war
27
Sport propaganda
- **Italian football team won the World Cup** in *1934* + *1938*
- an Italian was the **world boxing champion** between *1933 - 35* - **Primo Carnera**
- demonstrated the new greatness of the Italian people - **supremacy in sport**
- **famous sports venue** built *1928 - 38* called **Forro Mussolini**
28
Ministry of the Press
- **Ministry of Press** formed in *1935*
- renamed to the **Ministry of Popular Culture** in *1937*
- not very sophisticated + struggled using media such as films for propaganda
- **lack of mass media in the south** - lack of national integration
29
Cult of Il Duce
- image propagated by **posters + cinema news reels + radio** - portray Mussolini as a great leader
- popular fascist slogan **Mussolini is always right** - starts the school day off
- **30 million pictures** of Mussolini circulated throughout Italy of **2.5k poses**
- image of Mussolini as a **modern + dynamic leader + sportsman + respected statesman**
- frequently **photographed shirtless** - image as a man **attractive to women + traditional family man** - contradictions strengthened appeal as Mussolini **appealed to everybody**
30
Image as a lone leader
- image as a **lone leader above friends + own Party**
- without friends to distract from work + **without normal emotion to hinder**
- Il Duce represented hopes + desires of the Italian people - **supreme patriot + heir to Julius Caesar and Augustus**
- whilst PNF ideology might not be popular - Mussolini himself was believed in
31
Problems with the Mussolini image propaganda
- Mussolini’s image was more popular than the fascist ideology
- cult of Il Duce **didn’t transform the Italian people into a more militaristic society**
- focused on the worship of one leader - **not sustainable after death**
- as Mussolini aged the image was difficult to maintain
- Mussolini may perhaps **have started to believe in the cult of Il Duce himself** - explains his more agressive + radical policies after *1935*
32
Cultural revolution of Fascism
- all art should serve the goals of the fascist state + sustain the fascist image
- **The National Institute of Fascist Culture** created in *1926* - artists + intellectuals organised into particular associations
- organised **cultural events + free concerts + publications** to encourage mass Italian participation in fascist propaganda
- **PNF funded the Italian film industry** + created an **art film production complex** called **Film City**
33
Exhibition of the Fascist Revolution
- *1932* - held to **celebrate a decade of fascist rule**
- artists commissioned to make artwork for it - over **4 million people** visited the exhibition
- **Mussolini never attempted to control art style** - **as long as it glorified fascism** - much of fascist art was modern + experimental
34
Architecture
- new fascist buildings modelled on **neo-classical Roman style**
- to connect the fascist regime with Ancient Rome
35
Plays and Movies
- **Giuseppe Forzano** produced three plays called **Napoleon + Camilo Benso di Cavour + Juliius Caesar*** - audience encouraged tho link great leaders to Mussolini
- **Mussolini listed as the co-author of the plays** - he suggested the idea of the films to Forzano
- several popular films that glorified fascism + its achievements - **Pilot + Vecchia Guardia**
- worth noting that **87%** of all **box-office takings in Italy were from Hollywood films**
36
Unsuccessful influence of fascist culture
- the National Institute of Fascist Culture may have controlled what was produced - but **wasn’t focused in a coherent manner**
37
Repression of political opposition
- *November 1926* – Mussolini introduced legislation that **banned all other political parties** and suppressed any Italians who tried to protest against the dictatorship
- **death penalty was also reintroduced** for anyone who attempted to assassinate the King or Mussolini or threatened state security
38
Confino
- The **Specials Tribunals** could **send political dissidents into exile** for an unspecified amount of time – known as Confino
- Used against Italians who were judged as potentially dangerous antifascists despite lack of evidence
- **financially devastating** for those sent away and their families who faced discrimination from the fascists
- **dangerous to employ anybody who had returned from Confino**
39
Political Police Division ZA
- Formed in *late 1926* by **Arturo Bocchini**
- Were successful in **infiltrating + breaking up antifascist organisations**
- Had a considerable **network of spies** in Italy + Italian communities abroad
- *June 1937* – they worked with the **Servizi Militari Informativi Italiani (SIM)** – the military spying organisation – to **organise the assassination** of prominent Italian antifascist exiles **Carlo + Nello Rosselli** through a French fascist group IN *1937*
40
OVRA - Italian Secret Police
- Formed in *1927* by **Arturo Bocchini** to **spy on Italians + ensure destruction of antifascist activities**
- Approximately **5k informers** in Italy for the OVRA + successful in stopping antifascist groups
- OVRA spies **infiltrated universities + businesses + fascist unions + anywhere workers met**
- Italian **mail was examined + phone calls were listened** to by the **Special Reserve Service**
41
Success of Bocchini’s organisations
- Bocchini had **files on** over **130k Italians**
- the **Special Tribunals** prosecuted **13k cases** + imposed approx **28k years** of jail time
- appprox **10k Italians** sentenced to Confino + **hundreds arrested weekly**
- the regime ONLY carried out **9 death sentences** before **WWII** - little serous opposition
42
Mussolini’s concern with national security
- Mussolini worried about **nationalist movements** among the **Slovenes** within Italy’s borders
- Slovenes were **restricted in culture + speaking their language**
- Slovenes faced **considerable oppressions** from the fascist authorities
43
Cinema organisations
- **The Experimental Centre of Cinematography** - film school admitting **100 students** yearly
- **The General Directorate** of Cinema - **LUIGI FREDDI**
44
Political prisons
- **Lipari** + **Lampedusa**
- housed **political prisoners**
45
Early economic policies
- wanted to win over the powerful + established industrial elite - appointed **Alberto DeStefani** as **Minister of Finance** *1922*
- DeStefani’s approach was **little gov interference** + focus on **reduce gov spending** to balance the budget
- privatised the telephone industry + reduced state expenditure + **cut protective tariffs** - angered agricultural workers
- from *1921 - 24* manufacturing production improved + achieved **budget surplus**
- inflation problems + pressure on the lira
46
Giuseppe Volpi
- replaced DeStefani in *July 1925*
- marked a transition in fascist policy towards a more **regulated + state-run economy**
47
The Corporate State
- **Alfredo Rocco** introduced the structure of **corporatism** in *1925 - 26* - involved **workers + employees + state-appointed officials**
- main goal of corporations to **fix goods + service prices + issue norms to regulate economic relations**
- **Ministry of Corporations** set up in *1926*
- the Corporate State provided a **third way** between capitalism + communism
- Mussolini publishes book **Doctrine of Fascism** in *1932*
- **Giuseppe Bottai** was the **Minister of Corporations**
48
The Corporate State Timeline
- *1925* - **Palazzo Vidoni Pact** - asserts that Italian industry will only negotiate with fascist trade unions
- *April 1926* - **Rocco Law** - bans strikes + lockouts
- *1927* - **Charter of Labour** asserts that workers’ rights will be established through mixed corporations
- *March 1930* - **National Council of Corporations** set up - consists of 7 large corporations representing the main parts of the economy
- *1939* - **Parliament** replaced by **Chamber of Fasces and Corporations** - mainly a powerless body for show
49
Battle for Lira 1
- *1922* - Italian currency stood at **90 lira*** to the British pound - fell to **150** lira in *1926*
- price inflation starting to rise again
- *December 1927* - lira fixed to **92.46** to the British pound - sharp revaluation known as **Quota Novanta**
- policy seen as a way of **restricting government spending**
- disaster for most export industries, as foreign buyers found Italian goods nearly twice as expensive - Textiles industry underwent a depression
50
Battle for Lira 2
- **tariffs** on undesirable products such as consumer goods kept their prices high
- *1926-28* - **unemployment rates trebled** whilst wages went down **20%** due the **Revaluation**
- people accepted wage cuts as Mussolini portrayed this as a **necessary adversity**
- industries such as **steel + armaments + ship-building** improved as as their imports were **cheaper**
- companies such as **Fiat** (Car) + **Montecatini** (Chemical) + **Ansaldo** (steel) thriving
- gov forced to **devalue the Lira** on *7 October 1936*
51
Battle for Births
- *1927* - Mussolini wanted to increase Italy's population from **40 million** to **60 million** by the 1950s - unsuccessful as in *1950* it was **47.5 million**
- larger population would make Italy a world power - **increase military strength** to gain a strong empire + **create competition for employment, keep wages and labour costs low**
- Mussolini believed that **12 children per family** was ideal - **Basilicata** used as example
- **Marriage loans available** + part of the loan cancelled after every child born - **loan cancelled** after **6 children**
- *1928* - **married men with at least 6 children** entitled to jobs in **civil service + promotions + tax concessions**
52
Battle for Births 2
- **bachelor's tax** introduced so single men take on financial burden
- *1927* - **women's wages were lowered** - to discourage from working - lower wages encouraged employers to hire them
- **state railway company** fired all women except **war widows** + *1933* - women were limited to **10% of the workforce**
- *1930s* - Fascist Italy had **second highest proportion of married females in employment in Europe** - women were **33%** of workforce + only declining 3% from *1921*
- *1930s* - marriage rates remained + birth rate fell - *1936* **102.7 birth per 1000 women** vs *1911* **147.5 births per 1000 women**
- Mussolini claimed that the lack of patriotic effort in terms of reproducing from Italians lost him the equivalent of **15 army divisions** in WWII
53
Battle for Land
- The land reclamation attempt to increase areas for **wheat production** - linked with **policy of ruralisation**
- Ruralism - **rejecting modernity** + urban cities - **return to agricultural life** + countrysides
54
Bonificia Integrale
- **land reclaimation + improvement project** + prevented internal migration from country to cities
- *1920* - **USA closed immigration borders from Italy** - more Italians left the countryside for the cities for a better standard of living
- **Rome population doubled** *1921- 41*
- Two projects under Bonifica Integrale were **draining marshlands + building new towns**
- useful for Facist Propaganda - **Pontine marshes** drained only **50km from Rome** - tourists could visit + town of **Littoria** created
- **Wall Street crash** - land reclamation projects **boosted employment + economy**
- **marsh drainage reduced malaria by more than 50%** - improving public health in poorer areas
- only 58% of the land was improved
55
Peasants and the Battle for Land
- **less than 10,000 landless peasants** received the land promised
- law to **break up big estates and distribute them** had been dropped -fear of offending the land owners who were political supporters
- Italy was **18th across Europe** in the **daily calorie intake** of people - lowest in the south
56
What was the battle of grain
- **agricultural policy** *1925* - to make Italy self-sufficient
- in response to substantial growth in grain imports + price
- **high tariffs on foreign imports** + gov gave **grants to farmers** + **fertilisers + machinery + resistant seeds**
- **free advice** on latest, efficient farming techniques
- farmers guaranteed high price for grain produced
- didn’t want **slavery of foreign bread**
57
Successes of battle for grain
- Wheat imports fell **75%** *1925 - 35*
- wheat production rose **5.39 million to 7.27 million tons** *1925 - 35*
- Grain production up **40%** by *1940*
- **5000 newly funded farms**
- benefit large-scale farms like in **Po Valley** - maximised use of mechanisation + fertilisers
58
Failures of the battle for grain
- cereal production increased at expense of other forms of agriculture - animals + viticulture
- lack of competition increased prices for Italians - families paid **400 lira extra** in food costs per year
- Italy’s **livestock decreased** by more than **500k**
- Production of typical Italian goods - fruits + olive oil decreased
59
Autarky
- being economically self-sufficient by reducing imports + maximising production in Italy itself
- formally announced *1936*
- consequence of the Great Depression + sanctions from League of Nations after invasion of Abyssinia *1935*
- *1937* - creation of **High Commission on Autarky** - supervised policies +encouraged domestic production
- *1939* - **lack of raw materials** domestic production only met **1/5** of their industrial raw material need - still required imports
- **Living standards for industrial workers declined** - Mussolini willing to let happen to **avoid tax increases + spending cuts**
60
What was the Great Depression
- triggered by **Wall Street Crash** in America *1929*
- gov cut workers’ wages by approx **12%** *November 1930* + welfare spending increased **6.9%** *1930* to **4x higher** *1940* + taxes increased
- Cartelisation encouraged + made **compulsory** *1936* - to help companies survive
- Cartelisation was the **Union of businesses** to decrease prices
- Several Italian banks had to loan money to struggling industries
61
Policies formed due to Great Depression
- *1931* **IMI** policy provided credit to banks to guarantee they wouldn’t collapse
- *1933* **IRI** scheme - used state finances to buy worthless shares + **lent money** to industries + **developed more effective management** to mobilise various resources more efficiently
- Long term loaning + lending became the responsibility of state agencies such as the IRI
- *June 1932* - **formation of consortiums made obligatory**
62
How government helped people during the Great Depression
- *1939* - gov owned majority of companies in **steelwork + shipbuilding + electricity + telephone** industries
- Spending increased on **public works programmes** + **social welfare** to combat unemployment
- gov intervention **guaranteed financial support** for **banks + key employment industries** = maintained public confidence in economy
63
Discontent due to new anti semitic degrees
- Italian fascism had no link to race - many jews had joined the Fascists
- only approx **45k** Italian Jews - less than **1%**
- Mussolini had a **Jewish mistress** + appointed a Jewish **Finance Minster** in *1932*
64
New decrees against Jews
- *1938* - Italian Jews **forbidden from marrying PURE Italians**
- not allowed to have ***public office jobs** - teaching
- can’t run businesses with more than **100 employees** + employing **pure Italians as servants**
- can’t own more than **50 hectares**
- **foreign Jews deported**
- **6k Jews** left the country - businesses closed + students expelled + lost jobs
65
Reasons for Mussolini’s change
- **anti-Jewish right-wing dictatorships** in Germany + Austria + Hungary + Romania
- harsher policy would unite Italians in hatred for **external + internal enemies** - create a militaristic society
- **racial mentality** would give Italians a sense of superiority - prepare them for inevitable war
- **Italian imperialism in Africa** - mixing of troops with African women - seen as **inferior race**
66
Reform of Customs
- **idealogical campaign** - forced all **civil servants to wear uniforms**
- army + militia had to adopt the **passo romano** - goose step - **German idea**
- army forbidden to handshake + greet with straight arm salute - **Roman Salute** - to seem imposing
- ridiculed by Italians as pointless + copied off of Germans - **most chose to ignore it**
67
Loss of support due to anti-semitism
- Pope condemned the policies as **un-Italian** + attempt to copy German nazism
- public viewed polices as a sign of Italy’s **growing weakness + subordination to Germany**
- Mussolini’s goal to unite Italians through radicalism was a **failure**
- lost support of **conservative elite of the Church + business + judiciary**
- caused Italians to doubt direction of fascism
68
Compromise with Monarchy
- Italy remained a **constitutional monarchy** until *September 1943*
- 1920 programme excluded any mention of removing King
- **political compromise with the Monarchy** - gained acceptance of fascist dictarship amongst armed forced + state administration who had loyalty to monarchy
69
Laws to take power from king
- *December 1928* - Fascist Grand Council granted constitutional right to **limit King’s power to nominate future PMs** + **advise king on future Royal succession**
- *March 1938* - creation of the title of **First Marshal** - highest rank in military hierarchy - given to King + Mussolini - king had previously been the **Supreme Military Commander**
- *June 1940* - when Italy joined WWII - Mussolini took **complete control of military**
70
Lack of opposition from the King
- King made **little effort to prevent erosion of Italy’s constitutional democracy**
- unwilling to challenge Mussolini + was subservient - to retain position
- didn’t try to prevent the **anti-semitic decrees** - in *1938*
-political compromise with Mussolini
71
Working with the conservative elite
- **legal system** - mostly unchanged - judged were independent from the party though many joined the PNF
- military ran independently - armed forced run by **under-secretaries** - generals + admirals
- gov administration - conservative elite maintained influential positions - some civil servants removed due to **antifascist ties**
- top administrative posts in the ministries held by long-term civil servants - in the Ministry of Corporations senior staff had been civil servants since *1916*
72
Working with conservative elite in the states
- highest state authority remained the **prefect** - mostly **career civil servants** not regional fascist leaders
- traditional conservative elite had political influence through role of **podesta** - held by elderly conservatives - especially in the south - aristocrats + former generals
- for Mussolini this relationship enabled a greater acceptance of his dictatorship
73
Central gov changes - new laws
- *December 1925* - Mussolini became head of gov -accountable only to King not Parliament
- *May 1928* - Parliament was to be made up of **400 deputies** chosen by Fascist Grand Council from a list of **1k candidates** nominated by Fascist confederations + public bodies
- *December 1928* - Grand Council’s role formalised in the Constitution as **the most important legal body in the state** - all major policy matters to be discussed + approved by Grand Council - framework to allow PNF to retain power after Mussolini
74
Reality of Fascist Grand Council
- Mussolini had the **power to appoint PNF leaders** + **decide laws to be debated** by the Council
- Grand Council had no **consultation on major policies** - **Catholic Church agreement 1929 + WWII entry**
- Grand Council barely met in the *1930s*
- **Senate left completely unchanged** - by *1932* **14 senators** not in the PNF - Mussolini accompanying existing political elite to ease acceptance of dictatorship - over time **ensured all Senators were fascists**
75
Prefect’s job
- tradition position of **Prefect** remained - usually held by carrer civil servants
- **organised police + ensuring censorship of local press + suppressing antifascist activity**
- **reported on local fascist branches** - to ensure PNF was in Mussolini’s control
- **not always fascist but appointed by Mussolini** - ensured loyalty to his political goals
76
Local governments
- local councils run by **podesta** - appointed by the Prefect
- podesta role often given to **conservative elite** instead of fascists
- local gov not in control of Fascist party but conservative elite + career civil servants - **all owed their position to Mussolini** - ensured loyalty
77
Controlling own Party - Roberto Farinacci
- appointed **Roberto Farinacci** in *1925* - purged party of dissidents - was an extremist - **encouraged squad violence in provinces** - *October 1925* fascist squads kill **8 liberals** in **Florence**
- Matteotti murder - violate became unpopular with the public
- Mussolini purged the **Florence Fascio** + dismissed Farinacci - replaced by **Augusto Turati**
78
Controlling own Party - Augusto Turati
- Turati ensured PNF’s purpose was to only fulfil Mussolini’s personal policies
- mass expulsions of older hard-line fascists - **50k - 60k members** dismissed by *1929* + **110k** left voluntarily - unhappy with Party direction
79
Controlling own Party - Giovanni Giurati
- *1931* **Giurati** replaced Turati
- oversaw the purge of another **120k members** - replaced by **800k new fascists** - mostly clerks + civil servants + white-collar workers** - little interest in political opposition - joined for employment benefits of PNF membership
- *1933* PNF membership became compulsory for **public office jobs**
80
Nationalist merger with PNF effect
- ANI merged with PNF *1923*
- *17 June 1924 - nationalist **Luigi Federzoni** appointed **Minster of Interior** - helped placed older conservatives
- ANI members accepted merger - followed Mussolini’s direction - unlike PNF prominent members
81
Former ANI members’ role in PNF
- **Roberto Cantalupo** asserted Fascism’s main goal should be **creation a new generation local to Fascist ideals**
- **Costanzo Ciano** was the **Minster of Communications** from *1924 - 34* - longest serving minster in the regime
82
Mussolini’s radicalism influenced by nationalism
- ex-ANI member **Giotto Dainelli** helped rid Italy of foreign sounding words - hotel names - part of **reform of customs**
- nationalist ideology about expansion + imperialism influenced Foreign Policy in the 1930s
83
Economic interest groups
- Mussolini’s first economic policy focused on placating large economic groups - **Fiat + Pirelli**
- **licensing system** introduced to **protect small shop owners against larger supermarkets**
- trade union policy adapted to favour industrialist interests + syndicalists
- *October 1925* **Palazzo Vidoni Pact** - recognised only the Fascist syndicates as representative bodies of Italian workers - rendered other trade unions irrelevant
84
Fascist syndicates
- argued that fascist syndicates should be the basis of the state - corporations of employers + employees should run the economy together - would ensure workers wouldn’t revolt
- not subservient to industrial interests - conservative industrial elite concerned
- *April 1926* **Rocco Law** - gave syndicates **rights of representation + compulsory arbitration of pay + conditions disputes at special labour tribunals**
- strikes + lockouts banned - syndicates given no actual say in gov policy
85
International economic slump in the 30s
- gov pursued policies to support big businesses + encouraged wage cuts
- favoured interest of big industry - such as **Montecatini (chemicals) + ILVA (steel)**
- richer industrial + agricultural interest grouped were main benefactors of Fascist economic policies
- workers’ interests weren’t as important - workers’ wages reduced below cost of living from *1927 onwards*
86
Anticlerical background
- Mussolini had published articles **contrasting Jesus’s life + corruption of the Catholic Church**
- published book **The Cardinal’s Mistress**
- Mussolini angered by Pope Benedict XV’s **Peace Note** after **Caporetto Defeat**
- **Fasci di Combattimento** first programme *1919* had called for the **confiscation of all church property**
87
Move away from anticlerical background
- *May 1920* Fascist congress - Mussolini declared **Catholicism was a political force to drive Italian unity + nationalism**
- most of the Fasci leadership supported drop of anticlericalism in quest for power
- during his maiden speech *May 1921* Mussolini asserted fascism’s positive view of the Catholic Church
88
Pope Pius XI
- **Cardinal Achille Ratti** became Pope Pius XI in *January 1922*
- concerned by **communist threat** - believed fascism could save Italy from left-wing revolution
89
Policies favourable to Church
- Mussolini responded by reintroducing **religious education + crucifixes in pubic buildings + increase in priest pay*
- Vatican had a large stake in the **Bank of Rome** which was in danger of collapse - Mussolini assumed that the gov would help the bank
- banned **Freemasonry** + **anticlerical journals + dropped policies about taxing church property**
- had his 3 kids baptised + married his wife in a church ceremony
90
Pope Pius XI close relation effect
- Pope’s close relation with PNF undermined the PPI
- *1923* Pope ordered PPI leader **Luigi Sturzo** to resign
- backed Mussolini during **Matteotti crisis** - led to resolution of the Roman Question
91
The Lateran Pacts
- signed on *11 February 1929*
- provided Pope **44 hectares of land + full diplomatic rights** in Rome - **Vatican City**
- gave Pope **750 million lire** + **1k million** in State bonds - compensation for territory loss *1870*
- **Catholicism recognised as sole religion of Italy + RE established in schools + church marriages given legal validity**
- **Catholic youth groups allowed to continue - no political activities allowed** - concession about youth - only no-fascist org. Allowed to exist - had approx **million members**
92
1929 plebiscite Church support
- *1928* - Mussolini introduced new electoral law that a plebiscite will be held - to **approve a list of candidates from the PNF** - to claim a broad consensus from public
- as part of the Lateran Pacts - Catholic Church promised to mobilise the Catholic vote for the fascists - proclaimed to be motivated by gratitude for Mussolini - Catholic Action appealed to voters to vote yes
- Pope said in speeches that **yes vote** would **help approve the Concordat**
93
1929 plebiscite outcome
- *12 March 1929*
- **8.63 million voters** partook + **98%** of voters approved the vote
- Catholic support repeated in the **1934 plebiscite**
94
Catholic Action youth issues
- rival organisation with **250k members** - wanting to ensure loyalty of next generation
- Giurati as Party Secretary + Carlo Scorza given responsibility for fascist youth organisation *October 1930* - hardline in their attitude towards Catholic Action
- accused Catholic Action of **organising sport - banned under Concordat + being led by former PPI + being sanctuary for antifascist policies + attempting to form trade unions** = police raids + violence to close down Catholic Action youth orgs
- Pope Pius XI responded with attack on fascism + PNF + encyclical titled **We have no need** - couldn’t reconcile fascism’s sole control of youth with Catholicism
95
1931 agreement
- Catholic Action youth groups to be reinstated + **not allowed to organise sporting activities - confined to recreational + educational** aspects that were **strictly religious**
- former PPI members not allowed to be youth leaders
- *February 1932* - Mussolini visited Pope in Rome + he and Pius XI confirmed **mutual views on societal + gender values + foreign policy towards Soviet Union + communism**
- Catholic youth organisations had **388k members** by *1939*
96
Other church-state disagreements
- **girls involvement in physical activities** in fascist youth groups - didn’t prepare them for maternity
- **prostitution** viewed as **young male culture** by state vs condemned by Church
- *1938* Church **condemned anti-Semitic decrees** + **prohibition of intermarriage** conflicted with Church **authority to allow Jews to convert** - conflict with **Concordat**
- Pope Pius XI wrote a letter against racism - died *10 February 1939* - letter not published
