The Sociology of Families

Question 1

Define what is meant by a ‘Nuclear Family’

Answer 1

A family consisting of two adults and any number of children living together

Question 2

Define what is meant by an ‘Extended Family’

Answer 2

Refers to family members that are outside the “nucleus” i.e grandparents, aunts

Question 3

Define what is meant by a ‘Reconstituted Family’

Answer 3

Where two nuclear families that have split up merge to form a new family i.e step-mother, step-brother.

Question 4

Define what is meant by a “Lone Parent Family”

Answer 4

When a single mother (matrifocal) or father (patrifocal) is the sole carer of a child/children.

Question 5

Define what is meant by a “Same-Sex Family”

Answer 5

Where two people of the same sex live together, get married, have kids etc

Question 6

Define what is meant by a “Beanpole Family”

Answer 6

A vertical extended family that forms no (or very few) branches on a family tree. It is characterised by each generation having few siblings.

Question 7

Define what is meant by an “Empty Nest Family”

Answer 7

A household where there is a couple whose children have moved out and are no longer living together.

Question 8

Define what is meant by a “Household”

Answer 8

A family or group of people living together.

Question 9

Define what is meant by a “Single Person Household”

Answer 9

A person living alone

Question 10

Define what is meant by “communes”

Answer 10

A group of families or single people who live and work together sharing responsibilities

Question 11

Define what is meant by a “Kibbutz”

Answer 11

A group of people who live communally in settlements in Israel

Question 12

Define what is meant by a “House share”

Answer 12

When a group of people live on the same property but rent their own rooms

Question 13

Define what is meant by “Residential Homes”

Answer 13

A residential facility providing full-time care for a specific number of individuals

Question 14

What is Leach’s view on the nuclear family?

Answer 14

Believes in the idealised image of the traditional nuclear family. He called this the ‘cereal packet image of the family’

Question 15

What is Oakley’s view on the nuclear family?

Answer 15

Said ‘conventional families are nuclear families’ to describe the cereal packet image of the family although she was against the idea that nuclear families were important, she argued it was archaic and new types of families were emerging that may be more beneficial for women

Question 16

How is the nuclear family presented in the media?

Answer 16

Leach, with his cereal packet concept, highlighted how the media present a stereotypical image of the family that is based around a mother and father and children (the nuclear family)

Question 17

What is Robert Chester’s view on the nuclear family?

Answer 17

Argues most will live in a nuclear family at some point in their lives. He argues lone parent families usually come from nuclear families.

Question 18

What is the functionalist perspective of the family?

Answer 18

Interested in the positive functions of the family, says it prepares individuals to join society through primary socialisation. They also believe the nuclear family is necessary for society to run smoothly

Question 19

Murdock’s view on the family

Answer 19

He argues that all families fill four vital functions:
1. Sexual: marital sex encourages stable relationships that maintain stable society
2. Reproductive: society needs new members in order to continue. This generally occurs in families
3. Educational: primary socialisation teaches kids the culture of society so theyre prepared
4. Economic: provides shelter, food, and money for kids which also benefits the economy.

Question 20

Parsons view on the family

Answer 20

Believes the family serves two important functions that can’t be performed by other institutions
1. Primary socialisation: passing on the norms and values of society. Argues men and women play different roles. Men play an instrumental role (working and earning money) and women play an expressive role (caring for kids)
2. Stabilisation of adult personality: AKA the warm bath theory. Family provides support in a warm and loving home for adults to relax from the pressures of society

Question 21

Criticisms of the functionalist view

Answer 21

• Functionalists ignore conflict in families, and the ‘dark side of the family’ i.e abuse
• Cheal argues functional relationships can become dysfunctional functionalists ignore this
• Functional views on the family are based on research with American middle-class life and don’t consider anyone else
• Research may be outdated

Question 22

Marxist perspectives of the family

Answer 22

Look at how families contribute to the maintenance of society’s structure. Marxists argue that the nuclear family benefits capitalism
- families are ‘consumer units’ and buy products from a variety of markets. This benefits the bourgeoisie
- private property is important to the nuclear family, and by passing it on, families can build up wealth over generations
- the process of primary socialisation maintains class inequalities
- Families support capitalism by providing unpaid labour by providing emotional support for workers to help them deal with explotations

Question 23

Criticisms of marxism

Answer 23

• Idea that families exist to pass on ruling class ideas ignores other things that go on in families.
• Marxism can be seen as ‘overly negative’ and playing down the benefits that families hold for individual members

Question 24

Feminist perspectives in general

Answer 24

Marxist feminists: explore how women are oppressed by men AND capitalism.

Liberal feminists: argue that change has taken place through law, e.g the 1970 Equal Pay act and 1975 Sex Discrimination Act. They believe improvements will continue through law

Radical feminists: men dominate and oppress women. The socialisation of women as housewives and mothers oppresses them

Question 25

Feminist views on family

Answer 25

Marxist feminist: men benefit more from family life than women. Women support husband in a capitalist society and produce next generation of workers. Women also can’t compete for promotions compared to men

Radical Feminists: nuclear family benefits men the most as socialisation results in boys and girls acting in stereotypical ways. I.e the sexual division of labour

Liberal Feminists: increasing equality between men and women - men have more paternity leave, and women can’t be discriminated against due to having kids

Question 26

Family diversity - The Rapoports

Answer 26

Statistics show the nuclear family is the most common type of family in the UK
In 1982, the Rapoports were among the first sociologists to identify these changes that were taking place in UK families. They identified that other families were growing increasingly popular.
The Rapoports were much more optimistic about the increasing diversity of family forma. They argue there is no ‘right’ type of family

Question 27

Identify the 5 types of family diversity (Rapoports’ view)

Answer 27

1. Organisational Diversity (how families are organised)
2. Cultural Diversity (Multicultural societies cause different family structures)
3. Social Class Diversity (suggested greater instability in lower-class families. MC = joint conjugal roles, emphasise self-direction, WC = segregated conjugal roles, emphasise obedience)
4. Life Cycle Diversity (families move through different stages i.e from nuclear family to lone parent family)
5. Cohort Diversity (different generations have different views)

Question 28

Alternatives to the family

Answer 28

Not everyone lives within a family. Some people:
- Live on their own, as a couple or with friends
- Move away from home when at school
- Live on their own or with other single people in sheltered or residential accommodation

1/3 households contain one person, compared to 1/20 in 1901.

Question 29

Families in a global context: Goode’s theory

Answer 29

Goode argued that as countries developed, extended families would help replaced by a nuclear family.

Question 30

What is meant by “conjugal roles”

Answer 30

Roles within a marriage

Question 31

What is meant by “Domestic Division of Labour”

Answer 31

Household tasks divided between family members

Question 32

Bott’s theory on conjugal roles (1957)

Answer 32

Argued there are segregated conjugal roles (where the couple have separate roles) and joint conjugal roles (where the couple share tasks)

Question 33

Examples of segregated and conjugal roles

Answer 33

Segregated: Men are breadwinners, make major decisions and have the technical jobs around the home whilst women are mainly housewives responsible housework, shopping, cooking and childcare. Partners have different friends and leisure activities.

Joint: Both partners likely to be in paid employment. Household tasks and childcare shared between partners. Both have same friends and leisure interests. Both make important family decisions.

Question 34

Define Oakley’s “dual burden” theory

Answer 34

Women work both out and inside the home

Question 35

Define Duncombe and Marsden’s “Triple Shift” theory

Answer 35

Women work, do domestic work, and have emotional work.

Question 36

Edgell’s findings on roles within the family

Answer 36

Interviews middle class couples and found men had decision-making control over ‘important’ decisions, and women had control over ‘minor’ decisions

Question 37

Pahl’s findings on roles within the family

Answer 37

Looked at how money was split. He found that the method of money management reflects who earns the most. In younger couples power was split

Question 38

Domestic violence statistics

Answer 38

1/4 women and 1/6 men suffer from some kind of domestic violence. It is estimated that under 1/3 of assaults are reported.
They may mot be reported due to fear, shame, due to having children, finance, or fear they may not be taken seriously

Question 39

Functionalist views on conjugal roles

Answer 39

Argue it is ‘natural’ for women to be housewives and men to be breadwinners. Parsons argued women should take on the expressive role whilst the man takes on the instrumental role as it ‘makes sense.’ They argue that a part of primary socialisation is ‘gender role socialisation’.

Question 40

Criticisms of functionalist views

Answer 40

• Parsons’ view is very old fashioned
• No biological reasons for the functionalist’s view of male breadwinner and female homemaker roles
• Functionalists ignore how women suffer from the sexual division of labour within the family

Question 41

Marxist views of conjugal roles

Answer 41

Marxists believe that gender division is due to the power of capitalism to control family life
Women who stay at home help capitalist society by raising the next generation of workers
Zaretsky: argues family supports capitalism by providing unpaid labour and being consumers. Families also benefit capitalism as it helps reduce the stress caused by exploitation.

Question 42

Criticisms of Marxist views

Answer 42

• Ignores family diversity in capitalist society. Many women now work full time
• Feminists argue that the Marxist approach focuses on social class and ignores inequality between men and women
• Marxists see women’s exploitation as a consequence of capitalism

Question 43

Feminist views of conjugal roles

Answer 43

Ann Oakley: Interviewed 40 married women about housework.
Delphy and Leonard: it is men, not capitalism, who benefit the most from exploitation of women. Women have dual burden
Duncombe and Marsden: women work triple shift

Question 44

Criticisms of feminist views

Answer 44

• Functionalists argue feminists put too much emphasis on the negative side of the family, ignoring the possibility that women enjoy running the home
• Feminists play down Young and Wilmott’s ideas on the symmetrical family

Question 45

Pre-Industrial Families 1600-1800

Answer 45

Characterised by the dominance of a family-based economy where all family members worked at productive tasks differentiated by sex and age. The family performed many functions such as health care and welfare.

Parsons argued that pre-industrial societies were largely based on extended family networks. The extended family were responsible for the production of food, shelter and clothing

Roles were determined by birth.

Question 46

Pre-Industrial Families: Research

Answer 46

Laslett: studied 200 villages in 16th to 19th century England. Argued average family was relatively small. He concluded the nuclear family existed widely in pre-industrial England. Only 10% of households contained family members beyond the nuclear family.

Question 47

Industrialised families

Answer 47

Parsons argued that the Industrial Revolution brought about large changes to the family.

Families became more mobile as they needed to move towards towns for work. Parsons believes this led to more nuclear families

The state gradually took over some functions of the family such as education allowing parents to focus on socialisation

Question 48

Industrialised families: research

Answer 48

Anderson: studied census data for the year 1851. Found an increase in family size rather than decrease.

Question 49

Contemporary families

Answer 49

The family today is characterised by family diversity, with many different types of families. Roles have changed and family members are more likely to share jobs in the home

Question 50

Childhood over time

Answer 50

In pre-industrial times, children were seen as ‘little adults’. They took on adult roles and responsibilities as soon as they were able to

After the Industrial Revolution, Aries argued that the phase of childhood was socially constructed. There were restrictions on child labour and more education. Children became more dependant on adults, leading to ‘childhood’

Question 51

Childhood now

Answer 51

Families are now more child-centred, and have been since the early 21st century century.

Silva (1996) argued that the role of parents is diminishing and being replaced by peers, teachers, the internet, and computer games.

Palmer (2007) sees a ‘toxic childhood’ due to frequent use of the internet. Parents have less control limiting socialisation

Question 52

The symmetrical family

Answer 52

Young and Wilmott studied the domestic division of labour within families in London from the 1950s-1970s. From their research, they have suggested families have gone through 4 stages:
1. The pre-industrial family
2. The early industrial family
3. The symmetrical family
4. The principal of stratified diffusion

Question 53

Reasons for changing relationships within families

Answer 53

1. Legal changes
2. Change in social values and attitudes
3. Changing gender roles
4. Benefits for lone parents
5. Employment opportunities
6. Longer life expectancy
7. Decline in religion

Question 54

1. Legal Changes

Answer 54

Divorce Reform Act (1969): easier for couples to leave an unhappy marriage if they had lived apart for 2 years.
Equal Pay Act (1970): men and women doing the same job should get the same pay
The Marriage Act (2013): allowed same-sex couples to get married in England and Wales

Question 55

2. Changes in social values and attitudes

Answer 55

People tended to marry later and didn’t think creating a family was as important. Today more and more people choose to live alone. Become more acceptable for people to cohabit instead of marrying

Question 56

3. Changing roles

Answer 56

Women no longer need to depose in men for their financial security. Women are now more likely to focus on their career. Women now make up 47% of the workforce. Also, many women now decide to have kids by themselves

Question 57

4. Benefits for lone parents

Answer 57

UK government provides benefits to lone parents to support them. Previously, women would stay with men as they were the breadwinners but this isn’t necessary anymore

Question 58

5. Employment Opportunities

Answer 58

More employment opportunities for women today. Women are cohabiting and marrying later as they focus more on their careers than marriage. Women who cohabit or marry have more control over fertility too

Question 59

6. Longer life expectancy

Answer 59

From 1900-2016, male life expectancy has increased from 47-79.5 years whilst women’s life expectancy increased from 50-83.1 years

Question 60

7. Decline in religion (secularisation)

Answer 60

Declining influence of religious beliefs and institutions
Goode argued that secularisation has resulted in marriage becoming less of a sacred, spiritual union and more of a personal, practical commitment.

Question 61

Criticisms of families

Answer 61

• Dysfunctional families - often associated with crime and deviance - ‘dark side of the family’
• Loneliness and isolation - divorced and widows experience this
• Functionalists perspective - Vogel and Bell argue children act as ‘emotional scapegoats’ which is bad
• Marxist perspective - benefits capitalism - Zaretsky
• Feminist perspective - positive few of the family hide the true amount of unhappiness. Delphy and Leonard argue the family upholds patriarchy

Question 62

Define a ‘monogamous society’

Answer 62

People can only only have one spouse at a time

Question 63

Define ‘serial monogamy’

Answer 63

Where people have multiple marriages throughout their lifetime

Question 64

Divorce laws

Answer 64

• Before 1857: divorce only available through Acts of Parliament
• 1857 Matrimonial Causes Act: Possible to obtain if adultery was the cause
• 1950 Divorce Law: Grounds for divorce widened including cruelty and desertion
• 1969 Divorce Reform Act: ‘irretrievable breakdown’ grounds for divorce
• 1984 Divorce Law: Reduce the time before a divorce petition from 3 years to one
• 1996 Family Law Act: Not necessary to prove irretrievable breakdown

Question 65

Consequences of divorce on the couple

Answer 65

Bohannan argued there’s 6 consequences:
1. Emotional effects: grief, loneliness
2. Legal aspects: courts, custody of kids
3. Economic aspects: less income into the home
4. Co-parental: sharing potential responsibility
5. Community: possible change in community of one member of partnership
6. Psychological effects: stress

Question 66

Consequences of divorce on children

Answer 66

Divorce leads to children having to spend time with parents separately. It can be hard for kids to keep in contact with parents who they don’t live with and grandparents on that side of the family

Question 67

Consequences of divorce on extended family

Answer 67

Grandparents may not see their grandkids as often or at all. Other times they may be required to help out in the home. Divorce risks a loss of contact for aunts, uncles and cousins

Question 68

Functionalist view on divorce

Answer 68

They’d explain divorce by identifying the positive results to the individuals involved, and to wider society. They believe divorce contributes to the stability of society as a whole as many lawyers judges and court officials are employed

Parsons argued that the increase in divorce is a reflection of the higher values and expectations that people place on marriage. Divorce can create instability in society

Question 69

Marxist view on divorce

Answer 69

Describe divorce as the competition for resources and power within the marriage where both parties cannot come to an agreement
Unequal access to resources can lead to tension which could explain the higher rates of divorce
Hart argues that high divorce rates have been brought about by changes in the economy. The economy has demanded female labour giving women a dual burden for women which has increased dissatisfaction

Question 70

Feminist views on divorce

Answer 70

View divorce as a result of the conflict between a woman who is addressing inequality from her gender role and a man who does not want to relinquish power or resources to her.

Feminists are not necessarily against marriage but they do generally see marriage as favouring men

Millet argues that the high divorce rate confirms the belief that marriage is a patriarchal institution that exploits women